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Evaluation of the Implementation of English in the National Curriculum at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

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Table 1 Observed Time (in minutes) spent on English as a separate subject and English within other subjects

Table 2 The most frequently mentioned number of hours spent teaching core subjects each week at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 3 % of Responses Indicating Areas of Change in Teaching English

Table 4 Observed Time in minutes spent on English at Key Stage 3

Table 5 % of Reading Activities Commonly Identified in the National Survey

Table 6 Summary of % of Observed Reading Activities experienced by Pupils (Key Stage 1)

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Table 7 % of Pupil time spent on methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Table 8 Summary of % of Observed methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Table 9 % of Teacher time spent on methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Table 10 % of More Advanced Reading Skills Activities at Key Stage 2

Table 11 % of Observed Instances of Different Categories of Classroom Management at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Table 12 Range and Variety of Texts Recommended by Teachers

Table 13 % of Planning Activities for the Teaching of Writing in Key Stage 1 English Policies

Table 14 % of the Teaching of Writing Activities observed in Key Stage 1 classrooms

Table 15 % of Summary of Activities in Writing Diaries Key Stage 1

Table 16 % of Most Frequently Identified Strategies for Teaching Writing at Key Stage 1

Table 17 % of Teaching Methods for Handwriting Described in Policy Documents

Table 18 % of Summary of Handwriting Activities Observed in Classrooms at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 19 Handwriting Diaries - Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 20 Illustrating the Sequence and Stranding of Handwriting Development

Table 21 % of Activities in Sequential Development of Handwriting Found in the English Policies at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 22 % of Teaching Methods for Spelling Described in Policy Documents

Table 23 % of Spelling Activities Observed in Classrooms at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

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Table 24 % of Frequency of Activities Mentioned in Spelling Diaries at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 25 % of Activities in the Spelling Developmental Sequence found in English Policies at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 26 A Framework for Knowledge about Language

Table 27 % of Teachers' Perceptions of their Teaching of Grammar at Key Stage 1

Table 28 % of Frequency of observed Teaching about Punctuation at Key Stage 1

Table 29 % of Frequency of observed Teaching about Grammar at Key Stage 1

Table 30 % of Teachers' Perceptions of Teaching Grammar at Key Stages 2 and 3

Table 31 % of Frequency of Observed Teaching about Punctuation at Key Stages 2 and 3

Table 32 % of Frequency of Observed Teaching about Grammar at Key Stages 2 and 3

Graph 1 Distribution of time spent across Attainment Targets at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Graph 2 Proportion of time given to English activities within which Speaking and Listening occurred at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Graph 3 Proportion of time spent on categories of teacher and pupil talk at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Graph 4 Distribution of time spent on different types of talk within AT 1 Speaking and Listening at Key Stages 1,2 and 3

Graph 5 Proportion of time spent on some of the classroom contexts for Speaking and Listening at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

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Acknowledgements

We are indebted to numerous people for the successful completion of this monitoring and evaluation exercise. Those LEAs, schools and teachers taking part welcomed us with sincerity and professionalism. We are most grateful for their cooperation and the great deal of time they gave us to discuss their work. People consulted also gave generously of their time and contributed valued, considered advice. Internal consultants from CEDAR, Departments of Education, Arts Education, the Centre for English Language Teacher Education and the Computer Services Centre at the University of Warwick made themselves accessible throughout the investigation. In particular, we would like to record our gratitude to Professor John Eggleston, Professor Bob Burgess, Liz Coates, Dr. Elizabeth Bevan-Roberts, Dr. Rachel Parkins, and especially the project secretary, June Dodridge, for their ceaseless support and constructive contributions throughout the two years 1991 - 1993.

Project Team

Professor Bridie Raban
Urszula Clark
Doug Dennis (1991)
Joanna McIntyre
Kasia Zalasiewicz (1992-3)

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Evaluation of the Implementation of English in the National Curriculum at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the summer of 1991, the National Curriculum Council (NCC) commissioned the University of Warwick to undertake, on its behalf, an evaluation of National Curriculum English. The evaluation was designed to investigate aspects of the subject's implementation in schools. It concentrated on the first three Key stages (pupils aged from 5 to 14). The project team was asked to gauge whether any problems in implementing the English Order were the result of the Order itself, whether it was a question of teacher knowledge and understanding, or whether Statements of Attainment were pitched inappropriately for pupils in particular Key stages. Work began in September 1991.

A year into the project, however, NCC advised the Secretary of State that the English Order needed revising. The Secretary of State duly requested NCC to conduct a review of the Order. This was completed in March of 1993. Necessarily, therefore, the context in which the Warwick Evaluation took place was much altered: it would have been inappropriate merely to continue the original specification. Consequently, in addition the project team was asked to redirect aspects of the evaluation exercise. This report is an account of the principal findings during the project's lifetime. The project ended in August 1993.

1.1 Methodology

Different approaches to gathering information were adopted. The investigation was designed to compare the principle of the National Curriculum for English with the reality in practice. In other words, the project aimed to investigate how the Order was being translated into planning and how far this planning was reflected in pupils' experience of English teaching and in teachers' perceptions of their planning and teaching.

An initial analysis of the Order offered a framework for the investigation in schools. Close scrutiny of the Order also enabled some issues to be addressed directly, for instance the question of balance in Speaking and Listening, the encouragement of the necessary mix of teaching methods for the initial stages of Reading, and whether or not a practical framework was provided for the teaching of Knowledge about Language.

During the second phase of the investigation, LEAs were identified and a wide range of schools visited. During these visits, teachers' views were sought through interviews and their teaching was observed and recorded. Their planning, in the form of policy documents and Schemes of Work, was also reviewed in the light of the English Order.

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As a means of both verifying and extending these sources of information, a postal survey of teachers at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 was organised nationally through the Field Services Section of the National Foundation for Educational Research.

1.2 Sources of information

For the purposes of detailed investigation, 60 schools were visited in seven Local Education Authorities. The sample comprised small, medium and large schools in towns, suburbs and villages. Some schools had large numbers of ethnic minority children, others had traveller children and all had those with special needs. The schools visited ranged from a two-teacher infant school in a rural location with 49 children on roll to an inner-city all-age primary school accommodating 436 children with an additional 78 children in the nursery unit. Types of schools ranged across infant, junior, primary, first, middle, and secondary stages with the latter taking mixed and single-sex children 11-16 or 11-18 years of age.

The schools were located in a Midlands market town, and other urban, inner-city settings, an industrial centre in the North, rural areas in the South and suburban settings in the Midlands.

During these visits to schools, 49 Headteachers (Key Stages 1 and 2) and 54 Heads of English Departments (Key Stage 3) and English Coordinators (Key Stages 1 and 2) were interviewed to gain an overview of the teaching of English. 78 school documents for the English curriculum were inspected, 181 teachers were interviewed and discussions were held with 54 whole staff groups (Key Stages 1 and 2) and English departments (Key Stage 3). Detailed observations were made in classrooms through 269 sessions across the three Key Stages. Teachers returned 54 diaries which they kept of their classroom work.

Over 2000 questionnaires were sent out to Key Stage 1, 2 and 3 schools in England, in those LEAs which had not been visited. Approximately one third of these were returned. The most frequent reason given for not responding was the lack of time due to pressure of work, especially at Key Stage 3. In most cases, however, no reason was given at all.

1.3 Research Team

Staff on the project included a Director based at the University of Warwick, with three full-time project officers and other part-time staff and consultants as required during the phasing of the investigation. The work was monitored and managed by the National Curriculum Council (NCC) Professional Officers for English. Project staff spent fifteen months visiting schools, talking to teachers and observing their work in classrooms. The remainder of the time was spent analysing the English Order, collating and analysing the various kinds of information and preparing 23 reports as required.

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2.0 MANAGEABILITY OF THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM

At Key Stage 3, English is taught in clear time-tabled blocks. However, prior to the introduction of the National Curriculum, Key Stage 1 and 2 teachers tended to organise their curriculum into cross-curricular topics rather than specific subjects. One consequence of implementing the National Curriculum, therefore, has been to make primary teachers more aware that their curriculum coverage should reflect the required content of all nine subject Orders: teachers' planning is beginning to incorporate systematically those requirements wherever possible. Elements of subjects, including English, not covered by planned topics are taught separately. Reading at Key Stage 1 and teaching mathematics at Key Stages 1 and 2 were usually taught separate from topic work.

Teachers were beginning to distinguish between pupils learning English through explicit teaching of skills and processes, and learning English through using it in the course of other work. An increasing number of teachers were becoming more sensitive to this distinction. Where a topic included English, it provided a focus for the teaching and practice of a particular aspect of English, such as planning a story or teaching more advanced reading skills.

Manageability of the English curriculum, therefore, increasingly became a focus for schools as new subject Orders carne on-stream during 1992. Because of this increase in the subject demands of the National Curriculum a number of questions were addressed which would highlight schools' responses to this issue of manageability.

Manageability at Key Stages 1 and 2

(a) Time

(i) How much time is being spent on English?
(ii) What is the balance of time between Attainment Targets?
(iii) What is the balance of time between core subjects?
(iv) Is there enough time to cover the 'basics', or is there a squeeze on time for these?
(v) If so, what is the nature of this squeeze?

(i) Teachers' views of these links.
(ii) Teachers' perceptions of activities which are relevant to English but taught in other subjects.

(c) What have teachers changed to make the curriculum manageable?

(d) How might the curriculum in English be made more manageable?

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Manageability at Key Stage 3

(a) Time

(i) Amount of time spent on different Attainment Targets
(ii) Balance of time across ATs

(i) Teachers' views of these links.

Data relating to these issues were collected in a variety of forms in Key Stage 1, 2 and 3 schools and through the National Survey. In addition, six primary schools were chosen as case studies to give a context for the changes taking place.

2.1 Manageability of English at Key Stages 1 and 2

2.1.1 School Documents

Schemes of Work

Inspection of school documents revealed that planning for topics in primary schools was usually incorporated into Schemes of Work. The presentation of Schemes of Work varied, although certain common elements were apparent. Typically, they provided an overview of the planned curriculum coverage on a particular topic for an extended period of time, usually half a term or a term. However, teachers in some schools had begun to plan for longer periods of time to ensure coverage of National Curriculum requirements over a Key Stage. Within the Scheme of Work, planning for a given topic took account of the requirements of nine subject Orders. In addition, elements of a subject Order that were not covered by the topic were separately specified.

For instance, at Key Stage 1, Reading was taught as it related to a topic and through the use of other reading material such as reading schemes, class books and library books. Similarly, Writing was taught as it related to a topic and through activities which might have an English focus, such as handwriting. Speaking and Listening activities were generally related to a topic. At Key Stage 2, the links between the English curriculum and topic work increased, with the topic generally providing a focus for English activities. In addition, class time was given to individual as well as whole class reading activities.

The degree to which coverage of the National Curriculum was specified within Schemes of Work varied considerably from simply listing Attainment Targets to listing, in addition, Statements of Attainment and Programmes of Study. The English Non-Statutory Guidance (NSG) (1990: Section 4.1) provides schools with information on what Schemes of Work might include. This incorporates coverage of the curriculum as well as a variety of other provisions, e.g. teaching methods, groupings and differentiation. However, in

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practice it was found that teachers at both Key Stages were planning Schemes of Work predominantly to ensure coverage of the content of English as well as other subjects over and above any other criteria to do with differentiation, progression and monitoring individual achievement.

It is therefore clear that teachers need considerable additional support for the development of Schemes of Work.

English Policy Documents

English policy documents specified schools' approaches to teaching English but they did not indicate how a policy was to be translated or incorporated into the planning of Schemes of Work. The degree to which policies reflected practice common to a school was variable. In some schools the policies had been written by the English Coordinator in collaboration with all staff to ensure that practice in the school was reflected in the document. By contrast, in other schools they had been written solely by the English Coordinator and the relationship of the document to classroom practice in the school was less clear.

Planning

Schools were beginning to use long, medium and short-term plans to ensure curriculum coverage. This was particularly evident in the schools visited in one LEA, where the teachers followed guidelines suggested in an LEA planning booklet. These teachers planned in units of time which ranged across a term, a year or a Key Stage. Teachers' own individual plans were often set within this context of collaborative planning. Such planning incorporated Key Stage, whole year, term and half-term plans, and then gave details of weekly and daily activities. Because of the long-term nature of this planning, changes in any subject Order have a considerable impact.

As yet there is little evidence that all the requirements of the English Order were being consistently translated into practice through school documentation, either at Key Stage 1 or 2 in the majority of schools visited.

2.1.2 Interviews

Key Stage 1 teachers in all schools thought there was insufficient time to teach the full curriculum including English satisfactorily. In particular they mentioned lack of time to hear individual pupils read. Teachers thought that time was being taken away from the 'basics' because of pressures and demands of other subject areas. They interpreted the term 'basics' as either referring to the traditional notion of basic numeracy and literacy, or the three National Curriculum core subjects of English, mathematics and science.

Despite their perception of pressure on time, Key Stages 1 and 2 teachers felt confident about implementing the English Order. They considered it

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manageable, though it was recognised that it was coming under increasing pressure from the amount of content in the other subject Orders. Teachers said that it was the other subject Orders which needed to be reduced as a way of making the English curriculum more manageable. Nevertheless, they thought that the English Order had positively influenced their planning and record-keeping procedures, although these were found to be time-consuming. Teachers acknowledged an increased awareness of the breadth of English, particularly in relation to Speaking and Listening. Teachers remarked on greater structure being introduced into English teaching by making it more formal and more focused. Teachers at both Key Stages 1 and 2 argued for Key Stage related documentation to supplement separate subject Orders. In particular, they stressed the need for coherence and wholeness in the curriculum at Key Stages 1 and 2. Headteachers' perceptions were the same.

2.1.3 Classroom Observations

The time spent on English as a separate subject and English within other subjects is shown in Table 1 below. English which occurred in another subject typically involved the pupils applying skills they had previously learnt in English. It was rare that the explicit teaching of an English skill was observed within the context of another subject. Time spent on English as a separate subject involved the pupils learning and applying English skills, although the teaching and learning of these skills may have taken place in English time within the context of a cross-curricular topic.

Table 1 Observed Time (in minutes) spent on English as a separate subject and English within other subjects

This summary of observed times shows that teachers at Key Stage 2 provided more opportunities for pupils to use English skills in the context of another subject than their Key Stage 1 counterparts. Table 1 also shows that for Speaking and Listening, teachers provided pupils at both Key Stages with

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opportunities to participate in a variety of activities within other subjects as well as within English.

• At Key Stage 1, the focus of Writing was on teaching the initial stages of writing. At Key Stage 2, writing activities in English focused on narrative or creative writing. At both Key Stages 1 and 2 what pupils wrote about often related to a chosen topic. For example, at Key Stage 2 a teacher used the topic 'Ancient Egypt' to provide the context for a story, but taught the class a specific English activity (in this case how to plan a story).
• At Key Stage 1, pupils spent the greatest proportion of their observed time on Reading. The majority of this reading occurred in a separate English context.
• At Key Stage 2, pupils spent the greatest proportion of their observed time on Writing. The majority of this writing occurred in a separate English context.
• At both Key Stages 1 and 2, the majority of observed English teaching occurred when English was taught as a separate subject, with the exception of Speaking and Listening at Key Stage 1. This finding is confirmed by data in the section reporting school documents (section 2.1.1) and case studies (section 2.2 below).

Hours spent on core subjects

Teachers were asked to give an indication of how many hours in total during the course of one week, each year group spent on each core subject. Table 2 illustrates the modal responses.

Table 2 The most frequently mentioned number of hours spent teaching core subjects each week at Key Stages 1 and 2

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Methods of teaching English

Teachers were asked about the main way they taught English. 72% of Key Stage 1 and 86% of Key Stage 2 teachers said that their main way of teaching English was as parts of units of work drawing on more than one subject. This means that teachers' perception of teaching English was as part of other subjects or cross-curricular topic work. However, this perception was in contrast to what was found in English policy documents and other data observed in the classroom, where there was much evidence of teaching English as a separate subject (see sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.3).

Teaching English in other subjects

Teachers were asked to give details of any area of the English curriculum which they or their colleagues planned to teach as part of other subjects. Speaking and Listening was the most frequently mentioned aspect of English they planned to deliver through other subject areas. This finding supports data collected through classroom observation (see section 2.l.3). History and science were the subject areas that were thought to be the most appropriate as a vehicle for teaching aspects of English. Geography and Religious Education were also frequently mentioned. However, the majority of respondents did not specify a subject area. They gave a general response about teaching English in a cross-curricular manner.

Changes in the teaching of English

Teachers were asked specifically whether or not they thought they had changed the way they taught English since the introduction of the National Curriculum. 53% of Key Stage 1 and 63% of Key Stage 2 respondents believed that they had changed the way they taught English, leaving 37% of Key Stage 1 and 47% of Key Stage 2 teachers who did not believe this to be the case. On balance, the teachers at Key Stage 2 were more aware of such a change than their Key Stage 1 counterparts. This was also reflected in the interviews reported in section 2.1.2.

If teachers answered 'Yes' to the above question, they were invited to give further information concerning the kinds of changes they thought had taken place. These responses were identified under four headings: content, teaching methods, time allocation and administration.

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Table 3 % of Responses Indicating Areas of Change in Teaching English

For teachers at both Key Stages, administration was seen to be the major area of change since the introduction of the National Curriculum. This was followed by changes to the content of their teaching. At Key Stages 1 and 2 aspects of administration most frequently mentioned were more record-keeping in general (42% - 49% range of responses) and record-keeping related specifically to assessment (response range 23% - 35%).

At Key Stage 1, the most significant impact on content had been an increased emphasis on teaching Spelling, Handwriting and grammar, whilst at Key Stage 2, it was an increased awareness of Speaking and Listening. Teachers at both Key Stages also commented on an increased awareness of the breadth of English. In the section identifying teaching methods, teachers in both Key Stages perceived there to be an increase in their use of formal teaching methods. Under time allocation, teachers in both Key Stages perceived there was not enough time to teach the English curriculum. All of these findings confirm the perceptions of teachers in the interviews (section 2.1.2) and case studies.

Areas of English not satisfactorily covered

The final question in this part of the National Survey asked teachers whether they felt any areas of English were being covered unsatisfactorily and why they thought this was so. At Key Stage 1 the area of English which respondents felt was most unsatisfactorily covered was Reading. Two reasons were given less time for reading generally and less time for hearing individual pupils read in particular. In addition, Key Stage 1 teachers perceived there to be inadequate resources for all areas of English. In particular they mentioned a lack of tape-recorders and quiet areas for recording Speaking and Listening.

At Key Stage 2, teachers' responses were more diverse. However, like their Key Stage 1 colleagues, they also mentioned a lack of resources for all areas of English and for Speaking and Listening in particular. They also noted a reduction in the time available for teaching reading. A general comment was made by many teachers that they felt there was not enough time to teach the National Curriculum as a whole at Key Stage 2. All of these findings were

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confirmed by the perceptions of teachers interviewed in schools (section 2.1.2) and by the case studies.

2.2 Characteristics of Manageability

The six primary school case studies have raised many issues concerning manageability of the English curriculum and the curriculum generally at Key Stages 1 and 2. These are summarised below.

2.2.1 Planning

• All six schools had made major changes to the way they planned and documented their coverage of the English curriculum. Teachers in these schools saw systematic planning to be part of the solution to managing the requirements of all National Curriculum subjects.
• A degree of collaborative planning was evident in all but one Key Stage 1 case study school. This style of planning was seen by the majority of teachers as the best way to meet National Curriculum requirements. Through collaboration, teachers were able to reduce their anxiety concerning curriculum coverage.
• How teachers documented their planning for the manageability and teaching of English varied from school to school. Schools also differed in whether the class teacher or English Coordinator took responsibility for teaching English.
• Planning in all the case study schools reflected the curriculum model of the whole school, whether it be topic-based, separate subject teaching or a combination of both.

• In five of the case study schools, the designated English Coordinator attended available English INSET provision offered by the LEA. This information was then disseminated to colleagues via school INSET days and in after-school meetings. The English Coordinator was chiefly responsible for writing policy documents.
• In one case study school (Key Stage 1) responsibility for English was divided between two teachers. The responsibility for curriculum areas revolved each term so each of the four members of staff had held a position of responsibility for English over a relatively short time. The whole staff wrote the English policy and each staff member claimed joint responsibility for its content.

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2.2.3 The Teaching of English

• Where schools operated a topic-based approach, they also planned for some aspects of English to be taught separately. For example, at Key Stage 1, the initial stages of reading, and, at Key Stage 2, individual reading were planned independently of topic work.
• The introduction of the Key Stage 1 SATs was also seen by these teachers to have had an effect on the manageability of the English curriculum. In three of the case study schools cursive writing had been introduced in the Reception years as a direct result of the introduction of SATs rather than the National Curriculum itself. In the past, these schools had left the formation of cursive writing until Y2 or later. The decision to introduce it earlier was seen as a way of reducing some of the teaching load of the Y2 teachers and also to allow some of the pupils to achieve Level 3 of the Writing SAT.
• Teachers in the case study schools were aware of some changes in the way they taught some aspects of English. For example, at Key Stage 1 the teachers pointed to a reduction in the time available for teaching initial reading since the introduction of the National Curriculum. Because of this, they had enlisted the support of parental and ancillary staff. These support staff and volunteers had to be trained into the ways in which the individual schools taught reading, thus creating further pressures on teachers' time outside the classroom. At Key Stage 2 the schools did not rely on support staff and volunteers to the same extent. However, the teachers also pointed to a reduction in the time available for teaching reading, particularly in the case of beginning readers.
• Teachers in the Key Stage 2 schools expressed concern over the demands that SAT requirements would make on their teaching of the English curriculum.
• At both Key Stages 1 and 2, teachers in all the case study schools claimed that there was less time for teaching English generally and teaching reading in particular since the introduction of the National Curriculum. This was seen to be due to the demands of teaching the content of the other subject Orders. However, the content of the English Order itself was regarded as manageable by the case study schools.

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2.3 Manageability of English at Key Stage 3

School Documents

As at Key Stages 1 and 2, school policy documents at Key Stage 3 set out the philosophy and major aims of the English curriculum. Where change had occurred, the pre-National Curriculum documents focused mainly on the teaching of literature. English department policy documents now addressed all five Attainment Targets.

Schemes of Work at Key Stage 3 were found to be more specific than at Key Stages 1 and 2. They included strategies and activities for the teacher rather than learning objectives for the pupils. Schemes of Work revealed two main contexts for English teaching: one was centred on the class reader which provided the focus for all English activities, including the study of that text as a piece of literature; the second strategy was to combine a range of English activities linked to a common theme. Some Schemes of Work used one of these two approaches exclusively, whilst others used a combination of the two.

Interviews with Teachers

Teachers in Key Stage 3 schools, like their counterparts in Key Stage 1 and 2 Schools were divided over the usefulness of the English Order. However, 47% found it helpful. These teachers gave two main reasons: they saw it as a way of reassuring themselves that they had been 'doing the right thing', and as a means of planning. Some felt that the Order led to a more structured way of teaching, which was viewed as a positive influence. Nevertheless, some teachers who found the NSG useful, felt that it was weak on detail. For instance, it lacked examples of how to deliver aspects of the curriculum, especially cross-curricular issues and non-fiction.

Key Stage 3 teachers reported that they relied on a wide range of books, media materials and other resources to respond to pupils' individual needs. They mentioned use of the library, Information Technology, whole class readers and selected titles for individual class reading. In contrast to their primary school colleagues, Key Stage 3 teachers placed less emphasis on non-teaching support in their classrooms. Key Stage 3 schools relied largely on their own in-school support services when providing extra help in class for pupils with special educational needs, whereas Key Stages 1 and 2 schools made use of parental and other voluntary help.

National Survey

Key Stage 3 teachers who responded to the National Survey were asked for their own general reaction to the English Order. Over half of them welcomed and valued it. However, 50% pointed out that they were experiencing difficulty in implementing the curriculum because of lack of both resources and time. In particular, this influenced their ability to implement Speaking and Listening, teaching literature and the requirements for Information Technology.

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Key Stage 3 teachers expressed a desire for further training in the new areas of IT and Knowledge about Language. Teachers also commented on the influence of the proposed 1993 tests on their teaching plans. Some Heads of Department commented that Schemes of Work, which had been planned in advance for Y9 pupils, had been abandoned to accommodate the test requirements.

The Balance of Attainment Targets

At Key Stage 3, 39% of teachers taught Speaking and Listening in separate English lessons whereas 58% taught it in separate English lessons and in Drama. Although 48% of schools had a separate Drama department, 39% of these shared a common Speaking and Listening policy between the Drama and English departments.

Table 4 illustrates the time given to each separate Attainment Target observed both in English lessons and in those middle schools where English was taught in cross-curricular contexts.

Table 4 Observed Time (in minutes) spent on English at Key Stage 3

At Key Stage 3, time spent on Speaking and Listening, Reading and Writing was found to be evenly distributed.

2.4 Conclusion

2.4.1 Time

(i) How much time is being spent on English?

Teachers who responded to the National Survey reported that the average amount of time devoted to English was equivalent to one hour each day at both Key Stages 1 and 2 (section 2.1.4 Table 2).

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Teachers who responded to the National Survey reported that the average amount of time devoted to English was equivalent to one hour each day at both Key Stages 1 and 2 (section 2.1.4 Table 2).

(ii) What is the balance of time between different Attainment Targets for English?

Classroom observation showed that at Key Stage 1 more time was given to Reading, while at Key Stage 2 the most time was spent on Writing. (section 2.1.3 Table 1). At Key Stage 3, the time was evenly distributed between Attainment Targets (Table 4).

(iii) What is the balance of time between core subjects?

Teachers who responded to the National Survey and interviews reported that they spent an average of five hours on English, five hours on mathematics and two to three hours on science each week at both Key Stages 1 and 2 (section 2.1.4 Table 2).

(iv) Is there enough time to cover the 'basics' or is there a squeeze on time for these?

(v) If so, what is the nature of this squeeze?

Data from the National Survey and interviews in schools indicated that teachers at both Key Stages 1 and 2 perceived there to be an inadequate amount of time available for teaching the National Curriculum, especially English, and Reading in particular (sections 2.l.2, 2.l.4 and 2.2, Table 1). As the process of change was taking place, teachers in all Key Stages added new requirements to their existing programmes of work and were finding this increasingly onerous.

2.4.2 English linked with other subjects

(i) Teachers' views of these links.

(ii) Teachers' perceptions of activities which are relevant to English.

Data from the National Survey, interviews in schools, analysis of school documents, classroom observations and case studies indicated that the main way English was taught at Key Stages 1 and 2 was through a topic-based approach (sections 2. 1.2 and 2. 1.4). However, classroom observations (section 2.1.4) and case study data (section 2.2) showed that a large proportion of English was taught as a separate subject although sometimes content may be linked to a topic. Both the classroom observation and the National Survey data (section 2. 1.4) indicated that Speaking and Listening was the area of English most commonly linked to another subject. Teachers perceived history and science to be the most frequent subjects within which they taught English.

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2.4.3 What have teachers changed to make the curriculum more manageable?

Three main strategies were employed by schools to help them manage the curriculum in general and English in particular. These were: a system of collaborative, structured planning; changes in staffing responsibilities; and changes in teaching methods to include whole class and group teaching, setting and streaming as well as mixed ability groupings. National Survey data, along with information from interviews and the case studies in particular, showed that all of these strategies could be applied to a cross-curricular topics or subject-specific approaches to curriculum planning and delivery.

2.4.4 How might the curriculum in English be made more manageable?

Where teachers have adopted the strategies in 2.4.3 above, they have had little difficulty in managing the English curriculum. Nevertheless, teachers in fieldwork schools, in common with teachers who responded to the National Survey, stated that a reduction in content of the other National Curriculum subject Orders would be helpful. Most primary teachers were happy with the content of the English Order. Any difficulties in implementing it were due to lack of time. However, teachers would welcome the opportunity to be included in discussions and development of the statutory framework of the National Curriculum. Teachers across the Key Stages wished that the pace of change could be slowed down to allow schools to adjust at a more appropriate rate.

• Primary schools benefit from planning for long, medium and short-term objectives.
• Teachers in primary schools benefit from planning the English curriculum together and liaising with colleagues in other schools.

• Teachers will benefit from clear guidance and support in identifying and preparing Schemes of Work.
• Primary teachers would benefit from further guidance on the distinction between teaching English in the context of other subjects and using English as a medium of teaching and learning for all subjects.
• Teachers require more time to be made available for teaching the early stages of learning to read at both Key Stages 1 and 2.

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• The influence of SATs on the teaching of English needs to be carefully monitored.

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3.0 READING

3.1 Introduction

The team was asked to investigate these issues:

• What is the range of methods teachers use to teach initial reading at Key Stage 1?
• Does the Non-Statutory Guidance encourage the necessary mix of teaching methods and, in particular, place appropriate emphasis on the teaching of phonics?
• Is the gap between Levels 1 and 2 too wide to offer teachers practical assistance as they monitor early reading progress?
• Does the Non-Statutory Guidance offer teachers sufficiently clear advice on the classroom management skills which are essential if the needs of individual children are to be identified and met?
• Does the Order give sufficient emphasis to the development of More Advanced Reading Skills in Key Stage 2?
• What is the range of literature taught at Key Stages 2 and 3 and the context within which it is taught?

3.2 Key Stage 1: Initial Reading

3.2.1 Teaching Initial Reading: Matters Related to the Order and Non-Statutory Guidance

(i) Initial Reading in the Order

This section explains how the project team developed a framework for the teaching of initial reading skills from the National Curriculum English documents. English for ages 5-16 (DES 1989) and the NSG (NCC 1989) define reading in the following ways:

Reading is much more than the decoding of black marks upon the page: it is a quest for meaning and one which requires the reader to be an active participant. (DES 1989: 16.2)

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When we read something we make sense of it for ourselves, not just by 'decoding' but by bringing our own experience and understanding to it. (NCC 1989: 6.1)

The teaching of phonics appears within the fourth category, 'Ways of making reading explicit'. Aspects of this element of the teaching of reading are to be found also in the Programmes of Study for (AT 3 - 5) Writing, and the Statements of Attainment for (AT 4) Spelling, as well as for (AT 2) Reading. This emphasis on writing in the teaching of reading has been pointed out by Clay (1991) who states that the most pragmatic place to teach sound awareness is in writing, where segmentation is an essential element of the task.

(ii) The Framework

A further analysis showed that methods of teaching initial reading can be categorised into two sets of activities. First, there are those activities specifically designed to develop pupils' ability to read books. These include pupils individually reading from books with a teacher (or another adult); talking about the content of books; reading books on their own or to each other; listening as a whole class to stories being read and discussing these with the teacher.

Second, there are those activities specifically designed to develop pupils' range of strategies to decode print. These include whole-word recognition and repetition and practice activities, such as matching words to pictures and writing words underneath pictures; and the teaching of phonics. Activities which were observed in the category of teaching phonics have been listed in Appendix 3.

The specific teaching approaches contained-within these two sets of activities formed a framework for methods of teaching initial reading at Key Stage 1. However, the two sets of activities complement each other. Phonics, whole-word recognition and repetition or practice activities can take place whilst a book is being read to a class, group or individual pupil, as well as being self-contained activities unrelated to the content of a book. For example, a teacher may ask a class or an individual pupil to identify a word in a story by identifying its initial letter, or to identify a whole word informed by the context of a story, as well as having pupils engaging in phonic exercises and other exercises using flashcards. Repetition and practice activities may be related to

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the characters used in a published reading scheme as well as to self-contained activities unrelated to the content of books.

For the purpose of observation in classrooms, therefore, phonics in the teaching of reading was identified by the following range of activities:

play with language; rhyme, rhythm, etc.
identify words by initial letter
make links between sounds and letters
use letter names and sounds
teach and use alphabet order
look at patterns of letters and spellings of words (blends, digraphs, etc.)
use term 'letter'
use phonic cues to read words.

choose books and discuss choice
hear stories read and told
read with and to teacher (or other)
teacher acts as model for reading
talk to teacher and others about books
build up a sight vocabulary
use cues - picture, word shape, meaning
predict content of text
make inferences and deductions
use computer
use letter shapes.

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3.2.2 Teaching Initial Reading: Policy and Practice in Schools

3.2.2(i) Policy and Teachers' Perceptions

The Order does not specify in any detail the sequence involved in acquiring the initial skills of reading. One factor which would militate against this possibility is that development is not linear, and so the apparent assumption in the Order that learning to read will happen at Key Stage 1, and reading for learning will be the substance of Key Stage 2 is not necessarily the case. Some aspects of reading, such as phonics and vocabulary acquisition will span Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2. The degree to which this happens will depend partly, among other factors, on pupils' acquaintance with literacy activities on entry to school (Ferreiro and Teberasky 1983; Raban 1984).

Teachers monitored pupils' progress between Levels 1 and 2 by keeping records, and recording book titles rather than by tracking pupils' progress with the help of a conceptual map of reading development (an example of such a developmental progression can be found in Appendix 4). However, teachers' responses in the National Survey showed that they had an understanding (albeit implicit) of how pupils progress and develop as readers during Key Stage 1. This is illustrated by their responses to a question in the National Survey which asked teachers which reading activities they used most frequently in addition to reading books. Their responses are shown in Table 5:

Table 5 % of Reading Activities Commonly Identified in the National Survey

*Most frequently mentioned.

These responses indicate a pattern and developmental progression across the three year groups of Key Stage 1. Teachers develop pupils' recognition of individual words by sight and give them practice in sounding individual letters most frequently in Reception, with these activities decreasing in Y1 and Y2. Developing knowledge and use of the alphabet remains constant across the three years. Using phonic cues for new words, reading new words informed by the use of context, and practice in sounding groups of letters, increase across the three year groups from Reception to Y2 as the pupils grow in their ability to draw on a range of cues.

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3.2.2(ii) School Documents

The main source of documentation for the teaching of reading in schools visited was each school's reading policy. Schemes of Work did not generally incorporate how teachers taught reading. All Key Stage 1 schools had revised, or were in the process of revising, their reading policies following the introduction of National Curriculum English. This was generally undertaken as a co-operative activity amongst staff in schools led by the English Coordinator. These schools had ensured that their documentation reflected their current practice.

Collaboration of this kind between staff on writing policy documents such as the one for reading had increased since the introduction of the National Curriculum (see section 2 Manageability). It was clear from an analysis of school reading policy documents that teachers planned to use a variety and range of activities to teach initial reading that fell into the two sets of activities identified in the framework. Documents mentioned:

• pupils reading individually to the teacher (100%)
• pupils listening to reading (95%)
• using phonics (91%)
• teachers and pupils talking about books (91%)
• pupils reading by themselves (87%)
• teachers making a variety of reading material available (87%)
• using repetition and practice activities (78%).
• using whole word recognition (73%)
• using reading schemes (65%)

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Irrespective of the level of detail achieved by these policy documents, the majority included a 'phonics checklist' which teachers could use while monitoring individual pupils' progress.

The majority of the documents stressed the importance of establishing and maintaining a partnership between school and home as another means of developing pupils' reading. The most common way of doing this was through the use of a reading record or diary in which teachers and parents commented on individual pupils' reading on a regular basis. Some schools also held regular meetings with parents to explain school policy on reading, as well as producing booklets specifically designed for parents.

3.2.2(iii) Interviews

During interviews Key Stage 1 teachers reported that implementing the requirements of Statements of Attainment for Reading ld), 2d), e), 3c), d) as well as of the Programmes of Study for Reading at Key Stage 1, which require pupils to talk about texts such as stories and poems as well as to read them, had led to teachers increasing the opportunities for such activities to take place in the classroom and, consequently, the amount of time given to them.

Hearing individual pupils read their books was used by teachers as the main method of monitoring and assessing their progress in reading as well as a means of teaching. Teachers used ancillary help or volunteers in the classroom to assist them hear individual pupils read. Occasionally they paired a Key Stage 1 beginning reader with an older Key Stage 2 pupil. Both these strategies were used to increase pupils' opportunities to practise reading aloud. The class teacher, however, was responsible for monitoring the development of each pupil, assessing and recording progress, as well as planning the content of lessons themselves and managing the use of ancillary help. Hearing each individual pupil read regularly was seen by teachers as an important aspect of monitoring reading progress effectively.

Teachers, before the National Curriculum, had heard pupils read daily, both for practice and to monitor their progress. After the implementation of the Order, however, such reading happened less often but for a longer period of time (for example, once a week), targeted more clearly on monitoring and assessment. They were using time outside class (for example, lunch hours), to hear individual pupils read because they did not feel they had enough for this activity during the school day. The demands made by other subject Orders had led teachers to feel they had less time to spend on teaching reading. Some schools had extended their school day in order to make more teaching time available. However, in other schools, groups of staff and Headteachers stated that lengthening the school day was not in itself an appropriate measure because of the excessive demands it would make on the attention and concentration spans of younger pupils.

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Teachers interviewed in schools and in the National Survey reported that they placed equal emphasis on hearing individual pupils read from books, on pupils' individual silent reading and on reading stories to pupils as they had done prior to the introduction of the National Curriculum. They reported an increase in pupils reading to each other and sharing books. Of the teachers who reported placing less emphasis on any of these activities, hearing individual pupils read aloud from books was cited most frequently.

54% of teachers in Key Stage 1 schools and 62% of those who took part in the National Survey each used several reading schemes to teach reading; 16% used a single reading scheme and 22% used a range of books not tied to any one published scheme. Classroom observation made clear that where reading schemes were used, teachers also used class and school libraries to supplement them. Those schools that used a range of books not tied to any published reading scheme had adopted or devised a grading system such as colour-coding that allowed them to monitor and assess pupils' progress, as well as to guide pupils in their choice of books.

77% of the teachers in the National Survey and 69% of the teachers in case study schools reported the way they taught reading had not changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum. Those teachers who did report a change mentioned most frequently an increase in the breadth and diversity of their approach, and a decrease in time to hear individual pupils read.

3.2.2(iv) Observations and Diaries

Classroom observation of initial reading was based on the framework described in Section 3.21 above, namely, activities specifically designed to develop pupils' range of strategies to decode print and activities related to reading books. Tables 6 - 9 show the range of these two sets of activities as experienced by pupils and taught by teachers. They include a certain amount of double-coding to account for contexts in which one type of activity occurred as part of the other, for example, a teacher asking pupils to identify the first letter of a word in a book being read to the class.

Tables 6 and 7 show the distribution of these activities from pupils' perspective while Tables 8 and 9 shows this distribution from teacher's point of view. Pupils may be reading to each other or working from a phonic or comprehension worksheet while the teacher is working with an individual pupil or groups of pupils. Because of this, these two sets of data have been separated.

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Table 6 Summary of % of Observed Reading Activities experienced by Pupils (Key Stage 1)

Table 6 indicates that pupils experienced activities related to aspects of phonics most often as a strategy for learning to read. 49% of the activities were concerned directly with pupils engaged in decoding strategies for reading, of which half were phonics, either as self-contained exercises or as an exercise undertaken in the context of pupils' reading books. 50% of the activities were concerned with reading books in a variety of contexts. This distribution of activities is further reinforced by an analysis of the time which pupils spent on these different activities (Table 7).

Table 7 % of Pupil time spent on methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Of the time pupils spent on learning to read, exactly half of their time was spent directly involved in learning decoding strategies taught by the teacher (phonics, repetition and practice activities and word recognition). The other half of their time was spent on activities related to reading books, either by reading from a

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time was spent on activities related to reading books, either by reading from a book with a teacher or adult, by reading a book by themselves or with another pupil, or by listening to a story being read. The books used for these activities were mainly stories. Picture books, 'big books', reading scheme books and story books from the class library were all used by teachers as resources for teaching pupils to read. Teachers also used materials such as published or self-made worksheets and flashcards to teach phonics, repetition and practice activities and word recognition.

Table 8 shows the distribution of reading activities from teachers' perspectives.

Table 8 Summary of % of Observed methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Table 8 indicates that teachers use a range of methods for teaching reading, with pupils reading to the teacher or another adult and talking about their reading being the method used most often. 31% of the teaching activities were concerned with strategies for teaching reading, 69% on reading books in a variety of contexts. This distribution is further reinforced by the analysis of the time spent on these different activities shown in Table 9.

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Table 9 % of Teacher time spent on methods of Teaching Reading (Key Stage 1)

Of the total time teachers spent on teaching reading, 35% was spent on activities that involved teaching pupils strategies designed to decipher print, and 65% on reading as an activity itself, either by reading to the whole class or listening to pupils read.

Diaries kept by teachers supported this distribution of activities designed to teach reading obtained from observations in classrooms. 41% of these activities were concerned with strategies to decode print and 59% on reading books.

As has been pointed out above, strategies designed to help pupils decode print can occur in the context of reading a book or as a self-contained exercise. Further analysis of the classroom observations showed that 68% of the phonics activities and 89% of the repetition and practice activities set by the teacher occurred as self-contained exercises, such as completing a phonics worksheet or sequencing pictures to tell a story. Where these activities occurred in the context of reading a book, they were used by teachers to aid pupils in reading words used in the text. For example, a teacher pointed to an initial letter of a word in a story, asked pupils to tell her what the letter was, and then read the word aloud, or the teacher read a book aloud that included words previously encountered in pupils' reading. A full list of observed activities relating to the teaching of phonics appears in Appendix 3. Whole word recognition occurred equally as a self-contained exercise (50%) and in the context of reading a book (50%).

Where individual pupils read a book to their teacher, read books to each other or listened to a teacher reading a book, 98% of these activities involved the teacher talking with pupils or pupils talking to one another about the content of the book. This included learning about narrative sequencing and general features of story structure; learning about distinguishing features of books, such as the significance of the title page, reading from left to right and top to bottom; and learning about the use of punctuation.

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Teaching reading, then, occurred on two distinct yet interrelated levels at this early stage: teaching pupils about narrative structure and sequencing including identifying features of books; and teaching pupils how to read words themselves using a variety of strategies related to books and exercises designed to decode print. (See section 6.0: Knowledge about Language).

3.2.3 Teaching Initial Reading in English and Across the Curriculum

Learning to read was taught as a discrete area of English at Key Stage 1. This was borne out by the advice in reading policies and observations in classrooms which showed that the majority of Reading at Key Stage 1 occurred as a specific English activity. This also involved introducing pupils to a range of reading material such as fiction, poetry, and information texts. When reading activities were observed in the context of other subjects they generally involved reading the teacher's or pupils' writing or the teacher reading non-fiction books to the pupils.

3.2.4 Assessing Reading at Key Stage 1

Out of 47 Key Stage 1 teachers interviewed specifically on the issue of the gap between Levels 1 and 2 Reading, 74% expressed dissatisfaction with the progression of reading development implicit in Levels 1 and 2 of the Order. The general feeling appeared to be that Level 1 was too easily achieved and at a stage of 'pre-reading' while Level 2 was too broad and difficult to achieve for many Key Stage 1 children. The cause for teachers' concern was not the Statements of Attainment themselves, but the perceived breadth of achievement within Level 2. They found it difficult to explain to parents why some pupils remained working at Level 2 for such a long time.

1991 and 1992 SAT data (N = 326 Y2 pupils) showed a tendency for fewer children to achieve Statement of Attainment 2f) read a range of material with some independence, fluency, accuracy and understanding, than Statements 2a) - 2e), indicating that this particular Statement was taking pupils the longest time to achieve. In addition, teachers were finding it difficult to interpret what was meant by 'some' for all four categories of independence, fluency, accuracy and understanding, within this Statement.

A common point of frustration mentioned by Key Stage 1 teachers was that National Curriculum assessment procedures, particularly for SATs, appear to assume a standard starting point for all pupils. Even though the Programmes of Study for Key Stage 1 Reading stress that 'reading activities should build on the oral language and experiences which pupils bring from home' (PoS 2), teachers felt that assessment procedures did not take sufficient account of the diversity of pupils' pre-school experience.

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3.3 Key Stage 2: More Advanced Reading Skills

3.3.1 Matters Relating to the Order

Throughout Key Stage 2, pupils continue to widen their experience of books as they become more proficient in reading. From Level 2 onwards there are a series of Statements of Attainment which relate to matters beyond the accurate and fluent reading of narrative. These Statements of Attainment pay attention to developing response and engagement with books on the part of young readers (Reading: 2d, 2e, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e, 4a, 4b, 4c, 5a, 5b, 5e). In addition, other Statements of Attainment require pupils to develop skills related to finding, retrieving and using information from a range of texts and sources (Reading: 3f, 4c, 4d, 5b, 5c, 5d). These skills can be referred to as 'More Advanced Reading Skills'.

More Advanced Reading Skills, as presented in the Programmes of Study and Statements of Attainment for Key Stage 2, require pupils to become familiar with a range of information sources such as libraries and databases as well as with the different range of text types such as reference books, periodicals and encyclopaedias. These Statements also require that pupils learn to use a variety of reading strategies beyond close reading to retrieve and collate information. Analysis of the Order revealed a need for a clearer identification of reading beyond the early stages and a more consistent match between the Statements of Attainment and Programmes of Study in terms of the development and progression of these skills.

The analysis revealed five categories of More Advanced Reading Skills drawn from the English Order. These are:

• Setting Purposes: where pupils or teachers devise questions that require research in a variety of sources in order to be answered.
• Searching for Information: where pupils or teachers locate the sources and the texts appropriate to the inquiry, in order to retrieve information for a particular purpose.
• Variety of Reading Strategies: where pupils employ a range of reading strategies to select the required information from within texts in order to gather information for a particular purpose. These include skimming, scanning, and close reading.
• Collating Information: where pupils make notes of main ideas and supporting points from the text or texts and may use these notes to form their own text for a particular purpose.
• Collating and Evaluating Information: where pupils compare and contrast texts or present an informed point of view based on the information they have found.

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These categories have been systematised to form the framework for the evaluation of teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills, although in the Order itself these are presented haphazardly.

3.3.2 More Advanced Reading Skills: practice in schools

It was clear from visits to schools that Key Stage 2 teachers continue to teach initial reading, in particular monitoring the progress and development of slower learners and pupils with special needs. Time was allocated each week in all the schools visited for individual or shared reading of books and time for the teacher to read stories to the class.

3.3.2(i) Policy and Teachers' Perceptions

All the schools visited had revised their reading policies, or were in the process of revising them, since the introduction of National Curriculum English. The degree to which reference was made to More Advanced Reading Skills varied. Three policies devoted complete sections to More Advanced Reading Skills outlining the school's recommended approach to teaching these skills. For example, one policy distinguished two ways in which pupils used reading: (i) pleasurable reading, and (ii) reading as an information skill. For reading as an information skill, the following activities were listed:

• Gaining information from a variety of written sources such as timetables.
• Reading in different ways, including skimming and scanning.
• Distinguishing between fact and opinion.
• Using reference books.
• Making a choice of reference books.
• Using a library.

However, Schemes of Work from three schools referred specifically to the teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills. This teaching was seen generally to integrate More Advanced Reading Skills into the context of an activity rather than making them the focus of an activity. For example, as part of a Y6 Scheme of Work for the topic 'Aztecs', the teacher planned to develop pupils' reference skills, to use a variety of sources to gain information and to develop pupils' strategies to find information by using resources directly related to the topic.

In one school, the Headteacher, who was also the English Coordinator, had taken responsibility for this area of the curriculum and taught all the Key Stage 2 pupils in the school in groups throughout the week, using activities designed to develop pupils' More Advanced Reading Skills. It was not clear, however,

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whether the class teachers subsequently ensured that pupils applied the skills they had learnt in lessons with other teachers.

During interviews, teachers at Key Stage 2 stated that the requirements of the English Order had raised their awareness of the need to teach these More Advanced Reading Skills in a systematic way, with many schools planning to review, or being in the process of reviewing, the ways in which these skills were taught.

Initially, teachers at Key Stage 2 had interpreted teaching More Advanced Reading Skills to mean increasing the breadth and scope of pupils' general reading, rather than teaching specific skills. As the Order began to be implemented in Y5 as well as Y3 and Y4 during the academic year 1992/3, teachers' growing familiarity with the Order had begun to alter significantly their perceptions of what was required for successful implementation in this aspect of their work.

This increased awareness was particularly evident in teachers' growing realisation that pupils could benefit from More Advanced Reading Skills being taught explicitly, rather than as something which pupils would develop naturally through wider reading. For example, as part of her work for a diploma, one teacher had undertaken her own research into pupils' abilities in More Advanced Reading Skills at Key Stage 2. She had been surprised to discover that the pupils with the highest reading ages were not necessarily the pupils with the highest scores for More Advanced Reading Skills. This result had challenged her assumption that able readers would automatically know how to use a range of reading strategies.

Teachers felt that meeting the requirements for More Advanced Reading Skills was best achieved through a whole school policy that had been agreed by all staff, and one which took account of the requirements of other subject Orders, particularly since More Advanced Reading Skills tended to be taught within the contexts of subjects other than English (see section 3.3.2(iii) More Advanced Reading Skills across the Curriculum).

Teachers stated that they were unfamiliar with the term 'More Advanced Reading Skills'. However, they were familiar with the skills themselves as they were referred to in the Order.

Although teachers recognised the requirement to teach More Advanced Reading Skills, they were uncertain about translating these requirements into practice. This uncertainty was shown in a variety of ways. Changes in practice were most consistent throughout those schools which had adopted a common approach. For example, staff in two schools had reviewed their practice of teaching More Advanced Reading Skills led by the English Coordinator. The English Coordinator in one of these schools had, as a result of in-service training undertaken as part of the Language in the National Curriculum (LINC) programme, established a teaching programme throughout the school where teachers approached topic-based work through the explicit

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teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills, particularly in the categories of Searching for Information, Reading Strategies and Collating Information. The context for these activities was usually the pupils writing an extended piece on a topic of their choice located within a subject area. The teacher chose the subject area and the pupils decided the specific questions they wanted to answer.

The teacher of each class explained to pupils how to search for information in books using contents and index pages and the range of reading strategies available to them in order to find the required information. These activities were supported by exercises from published material or devised by the teacher. Once the pupils were engaged in these tasks, the teacher explained the ways in which information could be collated. The teachers in this school used this approach every time pupils engaged in this type of activity. The teacher concerned stating that greater emphasis was placed on teaching More Advanced Reading Skills during the Autumn term, and these were subsequently reinforced throughout the academic year.

The English Coordinator in the second school had also, as the result of LINC training, incorporated more targeted teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills and had suggested strategies to her colleagues for doing the same. The main strategy used in this school was the constant drawing of pupils' attention, individually as well as a class, to the various sources of information, locating information in books, and retrieving and collating it. The teacher made sure that More Advanced Reading Skills were explicitly detailed in her planning.

Teachers interviewed in schools and as part of the National Survey stated that the main way they taught More Advanced Reading Skills was as part of Schemes of Work in other subjects as well as English. (64% of case study interviews and 63% of National Survey.) Teaching these skills in response to the needs of individual pupils was the next most frequently cited main way that teachers taught these skills (19%).

The majority of teachers interviewed (71%) reported that their teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills had not changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum. Of the teachers who did report a change, putting more emphasis on explicitly teaching the skills was the main reason given, followed by moving to a more structured approach and using a wider variety of written materials.

The National Survey asked teachers to identify what they did to develop pupils' reading skills. The following activities were cited in order of frequency for each year group of Key Stage 2:

• Developing specific strategies for information retrieval (e.g. referencing, skimming, scanning);
• Developing independent reading;

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• Using published or self-made materials, including cloze and comprehension exercises, to teach More Advanced Reading Skills.

National Survey responses showed the following pattern for teaching More Advanced Reading Skills across the year groups of Key Stage 2 illustrated in Table 10.

Table 10 % of More Advanced Reading Skills Activities at Key Stage 2

These responses indicate a clear pattern and developmental progression across the four year groups of Key Stage 2. In Y3, teachers first developed pupils' abilities to select and retrieve appropriate information from books selected by the teacher, alongside developing their referencing skills. In Y4, teachers built

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on these referencing skills and concurrently developed pupils' ability to use library skills to make their own selection of material. By Y5, these library and referencing skills were developed further and, in addition, pupils were taught to skim and scan. The latter skills were extended during Y6 and pupils were seen increasingly to be able to distinguish fact from opinion.

3.3.2(ii) Observations and Diaries

Observations in classrooms at Key Stage 2 showed that where More Advanced Reading Skills were used or taught, the most frequently observed category was Searching for Information, which accounted for 42% of pupils' activities and 40% of the tasks set by the teacher. The tasks observed were wide-ranging, including: pupils locating books in a library; the teacher explaining to pupils how to use content and index pages in information texts with the pupils fulfilling this task; underlining key words in a passage, looking up words in a dictionary and dictionary-related exercises. The largest category used by teachers was Setting Purposes (43% of the total) for pupils either to search for information, or to search and collate information. Pupils setting purposes for themselves accounted for 17% of observed activities.

3.3.2(iii) More Advanced Reading Skills across the Curriculum

It was clear from the schools visited and from the responses to the National Survey that, unlike Initial Reading at Key Stage 1, the teaching and practice of More Advanced Reading Skills was not confined to English but was taught in other subjects. The exception to this was one school with a high percentage of special needs pupils (40%) which taught More Advanced Reading Skills regularly as a structured English activity using a published scheme.

Outlined below are examples of subjects within which teachers incorporated the teaching of More Advanced Reading Skills during classroom observations.

Examples (with % of total observed instances of More Advanced Reading Skills):

English: 22%

(a) Close analysis of character descriptions by three different authors: Chaucer, Naughton, Barrett.
(b) Writing a newspaper article using reference books to find and retrieve information.
(c) Using reference books as a stimulus for drama.

(a) Using reference books.
(b) How to use content and index pages in a geography book.
(c) Drawing a map of a journey, using atlases for reference.

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History: 28%

(a) Investigating an area of pupil's own interest on World War Two using reference books.
(b) Reading information and writing instructions.
(c) Comprehension exercises.
(d) Sequencing sentences in the right order.
(e) Underlining key words.

(a) Locating reference books in the school library for descriptions and locating the information.
(b) Looking at various books to generate discussion.

From our analysis of the Order and the NSG in particular, it is clear that while there are information, advice and ideas prepared for teachers which address the issue of classroom management for English, these are targeted mainly at Speaking and Listening. Where there is advice for the classroom management of Reading, it is concerned mainly with the classroom environment and does not address how the needs of individual children are to be met.

The term 'classroom management skills' was taken to refer to specific ways of teaching reading (for example, individual or group reading) and resourcing reading (physical, human, spatial). With this in mind a framework for classroom observation was derived from the current Order comprising three categories:

1) classroom organisation -

ways in which reading is organised in the class - individual, paired, group; whether it involves a particular use of space, e.g. the reading corner or carpet area; or use of the print environment available in a particular classroom.

2) resource management -

what book resources are used, e.g. fiction, non-fiction, reference, dictionaries; using space outside the classroom, e.g. the school library, local library, or local environment.

3) people management -

whether adults - teachers, parents, other helpers - are acting as readers, listeners or sharers of pupils' reading.

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3.4.1 Observations in Classrooms

The framework of categories led to some double coding. Table 11 summarises the categories coded at each Key Stage.

Table 11 % of Observed Instances of Different Categories of Classroom Management at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Table 11 shows that resources both physical and spatial were clearly the most important priority at all Key Stages.

3.4.2 Teachers' Perceptions

Key Stage 1 teachers were divided over whether or not the NSG offered helpful advice concerning the classroom management of reading. 28% of teachers found it useful; a further 30% thought that it did not offer anything new, while 32% felt that they needed more time to digest the document. There was a tendency to see NSG as a confirmation of existing practice.

Key Stage 2 teachers were similarly divided, although 49% of them found the NSG useful. They felt that it was helpful as a guide, a means of clarification, a help in planning, or simply as a reminder of points to cover. Some teachers felt that it was a source of good ideas, though the NSG was felt to be generally stronger on methods of teaching reading per se rather than on the classroom management of reading. Teachers who did not find the NSG useful thought that it confirmed what they were already practising.

All Key Stage 2 teachers interviewed mentioned the variety of approaches they used to manage the development of reading and to meet individual needs. Setting individual activities for different pupils (for example, silent reading, listening to individuals read) was mentioned most frequently (36%) followed by grouping pupils in different ways (18%), and resources (5%) which included reading schemes. Adult support for individual learners, not only from the class teachers but from parents and in some cases from special needs and welfare services was also mentioned (18%). This included links with home, either through direct teacher-parent contact or as a 'dialogue' with parents via booklets.

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Key Stage 3 teachers were also divided over the value of the NSG. 47% of teachers found it helpful. These teachers gave several reasons: they saw it as a means of reassuring themselves that they had been doing the right thing and as an aid to planning. It was felt by some teachers that the NSG led to a more structured way of teaching, which was viewed as a positive influence. However, teachers who found it useful felt that the guidance was weak on detail and examples of how to deliver various aspects of the curriculum, especially in the areas of cross-curricular input and discussion of non-fiction.

Key Stage 3 teachers also reported that they relied on a wide range of books, media materials and other resources to respond to individual needs. They mentioned use of the library, Information Technology, whole class readers and selected titles for individual class reading. There was less emphasis on adult support at Key Stage 3 (8% compared with 18% at Key Stage 2). Key Stage 3 schools relied largely on their own in-school support services for providing pupils with special educational needs extra help in class (where available) whereas Key Stages 1 and 2 schools made use of parental and other voluntary help.

3.5 The Range of Literature Taught at Key Stages 2 and 3 and the Contexts within which it is Taught

3.5.1 Introduction

The evaluation of Reading also included examining the contexts for teaching literature and the range of literature taught at Key Stages 2 and 3. Literature in this section is taken to mean fiction, poetry and plays. Section 3.5.2 below reports on Key Stage 2 and 3.5.3 on Key Stage 3 in more detail. The range of literature recommended for pupils to read is listed in Appendix 5 and commented on in section 3.5.4.

3.5.2 Key Stage 2: Policy and Practice in Schools

3.5.2(i) Policy and Teachers' Perceptions

Key Stage 2 English Policies for Reading which were obtained from visits to schools all stressed the importance of providing pupils with access to a wide range of reading material, encouraging pupils to read for pleasure as well as for information. The policies referred to making time for reading, either by silent reading, group or paired or class reading sessions, and to promoting the habit of reading by making books accessible to pupils.

Schemes of Work integrated teaching literature into a topic designed to cover all subjects over the period of a term. For example, a Scheme of Work for Y6 incorporated teaching poetry into its topic 'Roads and Bridges'. The poem 'Highwayman' by Alfred Noyes was read to a class, and its use of language, including simile and metaphor, was discussed. Pupils subsequently chose a

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poem from a selection made by the teacher and wrote a critical appreciation. Another Scheme of Work from a different school incorporated reading 'Goodnight Mr. Tom' by Michelle Magorian as a class reader as part of the topic 'Britain since 1930'. Cloze procedure, sequencing and a variety of written activities were planned around the text in order to develop pupils' understanding and appreciation. Both these schools were located in the same local education authority and followed LEA advice provided in a planning booklet on incorporating subjects into topic work. The English Coordinators had benefited from LINC training that had provided them with strategies to incorporate teaching literature into a topic approach. Schemes of Work from two schools detailed activities intended to broaden pupils' experience of literature, such as visits to the library, reading stories and poems aloud, as well as written activities such as book-making.

Discussions with teachers in Key Stage 2 revealed that they saw the teaching of literature predominantly concerned with developing the habit of reading, rather than teaching particular texts.

Every school visited at Key Stage 2 allocated a period of time every day or every week to individual reading, where the pupils read books by themselves, to each other or to the teacher, choosing books from the class library, school library or those which they had brought from home. The degree to which this reading was monitored varied: some teachers kept a record of the books individual pupils read, while in other cases, no record was kept at all.

Two schools were beginning to use sets of books with pupils as whole class texts or smaller sets for use by groups of pupils within a class. However, when teachers read a poem or a novel to whole classes, generally pupils listened without having a copy of the text to follow.

Teachers extended pupils' reading by recommendation, either by providing reading lists, recommending specific books to individual pupils or encouraging pupils to recommend books to one another. They also developed the habit of reading by encouraging individual silent reading. Teachers in two schools stated that they incorporated teaching literature into topic-based activities wherever this was appropriate.

The majority of teachers (88% in schools, 85% National Survey) stated that the way they taught literature had not changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum. Increasing the range of pupils' choice of books and literature-based activities were the areas of change mentioned most frequently.

3.5.2(ii) Observations and Diaries

Observations in classrooms and diaries kept by teachers verified the contexts for teaching literature found in school documentation and given by teachers in interview, with the balance more in favour of individual reading than any other context. Half the observed classroom activities that included literature were of pupils reading books individually or in pairs. The books read were chosen

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from a variety of sources, including the school or class libraries or the home. The range of books chosen by pupils included non-fiction as well as fiction. Pupils' choice of books was monitored and recorded by the teacher in most cases.

Other observed activities showed literature being included within the context of another subject. For example, a teacher read a story from 'Tales of Ancient Egypt' by Roger Lancelyn in order to stimulate pupils writing their own stories on Egyptian Gods as part of the topic 'Ancient Egypt'. Similarly, pupils read short stories individually or in pairs from published collections, followed it with comprehension and other activities suggested by the follow-up work in the material. A teacher read part of a novel to a whole class as a class reader and the class listened.

Some teachers recorded in their diaries that they had read the following novels to the class: 'Oliver Twist' by Charles Dickens, 'Goodnight Mr. Tom' by Michelle Magorian, 'The Sheep-Pig' by Dick King Smith and 'Fantastic Mr. Fox' by Roald Dahl. Follow-up activities included: pupils re-telling their own stories; a sustained sequence of related writing over a week; further discussion of the writer and other books written by him or her.

It was clear that teachers placed greater emphasis on developing the habit of reading by providing time for individual reading and hearing stories read rather than teaching particular texts. Teachers incorporated literary texts into topic work wherever they felt this was appropriate. Reading literary texts or extracts from literary texts was usually used as a stimulus for discussion and creative writing, rather than to study the texts themselves.

3.5.3 Key Stage 3: Policy and Practice in Schools

3.5.3(i) Policy and Teachers' Perceptions

A common feature in policy documents and Schemes of Work at this Key Stage was the organisation of the requirements of the Order into units or modules. Schemes of Work integrated the requirements of all five English Attainment Targets, with the Knowledge about Language requirements either integrated into these Schemes or forming separate, free-standing Schemes (see section 6: Knowledge about Language).

Teaching literature, according to policy documentation, was viewed in one of two ways. The most common approach used was work based on a class reader that provided a context for all Speaking and Listening, Reading and Writing activities. The choice of text was usually left to the professional judgement of each individual teacher, chosen from the department's stock of books. Schemes of Work listed suggested activities for each Attainment Target, taking into account the requirements of the Programmes of Study and Statements of Attainment for Key Stage 3. The Head of English at one of these schools stated that the department had found it difficult to meet all the requirements for English using such an approach, particularly those for

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Knowledge about Language. To overcome this, the department had produced its own booklets on grammar, for example, to ensure that any requirements not met through the use of a class reader were covered. Overall, policies and Schemes of Work aimed to balance the requirements for all the Attainment Targets through their use of class readers. Schemes of Work based on a class reader did not necessarily include studying it as literature on every occasion. It could be used to provide a context for oral and written activities, rather than a study of the text itself.

The second approach was to define themes which incorporated a range of literature as well as providing the focus for oral and written activities designed to meet the complete requirements of the English Order. Examples of themes used in one school were: 'Myths', 'Adventure' and 'Monsters'.

In middle schools with a Y7 class, teachers integrated the requirements of the Order at Key Stage 3 into cross-curricular topic-based Schemes of Work. For example, as part of the topic 'Medieval Realms', activities included reading Chaucer and Shakespeare and learning about language change. A combination of the two approaches was not uncommon. Schemes of Work based on self-contained areas or themes were planned in addition to units based on class readers.

70% of teachers interviewed in schools and 71% of teachers who took part in the National Survey stated that the main way they taught literature at Key Stage 3 was as part of a series of lessons that integrated the Attainment Targets. The remaining 30% of teachers interviewed in schools stated that they mainly taught literature as a unit or sequence of lessons with a literary focus, as did 22% of teachers in the National Survey.

In addition to using one of these two approaches, every school visited made regular time available for pupils to read individually self-selected books monitored by the teacher. Book provision for these reading times consisted of book boxes selected by the teacher, published packages, the school library, books from home, or the local library.

43% of teachers in schools visited and 41% of teachers in the National Survey stated that their teaching of literature had changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum. The main reasons given were: increasing the amount of literature-based activities; teaching plays by Shakespeare; increasing the range and variety of literary genres; ensuring that SAT requirements were met and generally increasing the range of pre-twentieth century literature.

3.5.3(ii) Observations and Diaries

Observations in classrooms and activities recorded by teachers in their diaries showed the use of a novel or play as the class reader as well as poetry and the Key Stage 3 SEAC Anthology. Reading the text usually occurred as a whole class activity, where each pupil had a copy of the text and the pupils, as well as the teacher, took turns in reading aloud. Readings were usually preceded and

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followed by discussion about the text, both its content and vocabulary. For example: a Y9 whole class discussion on the major themes of the play 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' followed by groups of pupils finding and noting appropriate quotations which exemplified the themes; a Y8 whole class discussion on 'Dulce et Decorum Est' followed by pupils individually completing a comprehension exercise; a Y7 class wrote an onomatopoeic poem following a reading and discussion of another example of an onomatopoeic poem; Y7 pupils transformed the content of a narrative poem into a different form.

Heads of Department visited in schools during January and February 1993 stated that the requirements for SATs, especially for Reading, had forced them to abandon planned Schemes of Work for Y9. They stated that reading and studying a Shakespeare play and the Key Stage 3 Anthology (with no prior knowledge of the assessment arrangements) had taken up most of Y9 English time during the academic year at the expense of fulfilling some of the other requirements of the English Order. Under these circumstances, they felt that some parts of the Order could not be adequately taught.

3.5.4 Survey of Literature Recommended by Teachers at Key Stages 2 and 3

Teachers at Key Stages 2 and 3 were asked to list the novels, plays, poems and/or anthologies which they and their colleagues made certain their pupils read in each year group. The responses reported here include those from 560 Key Stage 2 teachers and 494 Key Stage 3 teachers who were interviewed in schools or responded to the National Survey. Some teachers felt unable to respond to this question because books were chosen according to the context of work, choice of books was left to pupils, choices were governed by individual needs, or lists of books were felt to be inappropriate.

Library catalogues and databases were used to identify more fully the responses which these teachers made to this request. The lists in Appendix 5 still contain inaccuracies as some references remained impervious to our searches. Where little or no further information was available, a category 'miscellaneous' has been used. These lists appear in year groups, under alphabet order of author with A or F indicating an Abridged or Full version of the text. The number for each title indicates the frequency of mention.

What is immediately noticeable from these lists is the extensive range and variety of prose, poetry and plays which teachers make certain their pupils read throughout these stages of schooling. This range and variety extends as the pupils grow older and this progression is shown in Table 12.

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Table 12 Range and Variety of Texts Recommended by Teachers

The table also shows that some picture books were still used with Key Stage 2 pupils while pupils were more likely to encounter plays as they moved up the year groups.

Some titles are read with different age groups of pupils. This illustrates the development in depth of work which some exceptional texts can support. For example, 'The Jolly Postman' can be read on one level as a story whilst with older children it can be used as a stimulus for discussing the conventions of letter-writing and Knowledge about Language activities. An indication of the most frequently cited titles (above 10 references) are listed below. The asterisked titles are those which appear listed in the SAT Booklist for Key Stage 1 (DES 1992) or the Key Stage 3 SEAC Anthology (DFE/WO 1993)

Year 3

Poetry

Year 4

Poetry

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Year 5

Poetry

Year 6

Year 7

Poetry

Plays

Year 8

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Plays

Year 9

Poetry

Plays

The complete list of teachers' responses to the request for this information is shown in Appendix 5, where it will be seen that titles are mentioned which were first published pre-20th Century, in the early modern 20th Century (1900-1940) and during the modern period (1941-to date).

It was clear from all our evidence that teachers at Key Stage 3 provided a greater range of contexts within which literature was taught than at Key Stage 2. Teachers in middle schools ensured that they planned to meet the requirements for Reading for Y7 in their topic-based approach.

Teachers in both middle and secondary schools planned their Schemes of Work on the principle that the five Attainment Targets should be integrated, not taught separately. Two main contexts for teaching literature were used at Key Stage 3: using a literary text (usually a novel) to provide the focus for activities; including the study of that text as a piece of literature; the second combined a range of literary texts linked to a common theme such as 'Myths

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and Legends'. Some schools used one approach exclusively, whilst others used a combination of the two.

Pupils at Key Stages 2 and 3 were recommended books by their teachers and these titles included both pre-20th century and modern periods, with a bias towards the later. A wide range of texts were selected by teachers from prose, poetry and plays. Some picture books were still used with pupils at Key Stage 2 while there was an increasing use of plays in Key Stage 3.

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4.0 WRITING (INCLUDING SPELLING & HANDWRITING)

4.1 Introduction

This section of the report examines the issues related to the Writing in the specification. The sub-sections below deal separately with the early stages of Writing (section 4.2); with (AT 4) Handwriting in Key Stages 1 - 2 (section 4.3) and finally with (AT 5) Spelling in Key Stages 1 - 3 (section 4.4).

4.2 Writing: The Teaching of Writing at Key Stage 1

4.2.1 Introduction

The English Order (DES/WO 1990) and English for Ages 5-16 (DES 1989 paras. 17.1, 17.2) distinguish between the compositional aspects of Writing, and the secretarial requirements of handwriting, spelling and presentation. This sub-section addresses issues associated with the compositional aspects of writing, while the secretarial requirements are discussed in sections 4.3 and 4.4 below. Issues surrounding the explicit teaching of grammar and punctuation are dealt with in the Knowledge about Language section (6).

4.2.2 Matters relating to the Order

The project team was asked to investigate whether the Statement of Attainment for Level 1 is pitched at the wrong level and if the gap between Level 1 and Level 2 is too wide.

The majority (73%) of teachers interviewed were dissatisfied with the progression between Levels 1 and 2. They said that Level 1 was achievable with some ease, while it was more difficult to meet the range of criteria required for Level 2. The problem seems to lie in Statement of Attainment 2a) which requires pupils to:

'produce independently, pieces of writing using complete sentences, some of them demarcated with capital letters and full stops or question marks.'

In 1991 and 1992, SAT data have been collected. Analysis of these data indicated that Statement of Attainment 2a) was achieved by fewer pupils than Statements of Attainment 2b), c) and d). However, a greater proportion of pupils achieved Statement 2a) in 1992, suggesting that there is a growing common understanding among teachers as to how to interpret this Statement more appropriately. This higher achievement could have been as a result of teaching which was explicitly directed towards the SAT. This will be discussed in more detail below.

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4.2.3 The Teaching of Initial Writing Skills

Inspection of paragraphs 17.1 and 17.2 of English for Ages 5-16 (DES 1989) and associated paragraphs of the Order gave rise to a framework which has been used to examine a range of teaching methods used by Key Stage 1 teachers.

(i) The Framework

This framework is shown below. It allows teachers to foster writing which is composed by pupils with a varying amount of teacher intervention. It also accounts for teachers' writing acting as a model for the pupils to copy.

Composing

(a) Teacher scribing for pupil exactly what s/he says.
(b) Teacher scribing for pupil re-phrasing what s/he says.
(c) Collaborative Writing in a group of pupils (with or without the teacher).
(d) Pupil draws pictures and 'scribble-write' underneath.
(e) Teaching using Breakthrough to Literacy materials.
(f) Computer used by pupil to compose writing.
(g) Teacher provides opportunities for pupil to write independently.
(h) Teacher writes down pupil dictation to provide a model for the pupil to then copy.

Secretarial

(i) Teacher writes in pupil's book for pupil to copy.
(j) Teacher writes on the board for pupil to copy.
(k) Teacher uses a sound/symbol (phonic) approach to spelling.
(l) Computer used for editing pupil's writing.
(m) Computer used to make a fair copy.
(n) Wordbooks/dictionaries/print environment used to aid writing.

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(ii) School Documents

School documents illustrated how teachers plan to teach initial writing skills. Policy documents and Schemes of Work form the evidence of this planning.

(a) English/Language Policies

The Writing framework (4.2.3(i) above) was applied to the language policies viewed in the schools visited in order to see what kinds of advice on the teaching of Writing were contained in such documents. Table 13 below summarises the analysis of these policies.

Table 13 % of Planning Activities for the Teaching of Writing in Key Stage 1 English Policies

The majority of school policies were in the form of separate Writing policies although some policies integrated Writing with Spelling and Handwriting.

The policies varied in form and content although there were general points common to the majority of the documents. Most documents referred to the National Curriculum requirements, although this ranged from simply listing appropriate Statements of Attainment to extensive quotation from the Order and other non-statutory documents. In addition, the majority of policies discussed the importance of writing tasks having real function or purpose and emphasised the

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importance of drafting and re-drafting written work, Generally the policies stressed that opportunities for writing across the curriculum allowed the pupils to experiment with writing in different forms for a variety of purposes. These policies made no explicit distinction between the teaching of initial writing skills in English and teaching them in other subject-related areas across the curriculum.

Approximately half of the Writing policies advocated a 'writer's workshop' approach to teaching the initial or 'emergent' stages of writing (Czwerniewska 1992). This approach was introduced to some teachers through the National Writing Project and acknowledges that pupils have the ability to compose texts at a very early stage although they may not be able to articulate this ability through their own use of the written word. All early writing attempts are acknowledged even though these attempts may be at the pre-writing stage of development. This notion of valuing pupils' independent writing attempts is also covered by some strands of the Writing framework, which is derived from the Order, without using the term 'writer's workshop'.

With respect to the Writing framework, school policies placed the greatest emphasis on the teacher creating opportunities for pupils to write independently from a very early age. Other methods frequently mentioned included: methods involving teacher acting as a scribe and various types of collaborative writing. Policies sometimes simply listed teaching activities; others described in detail various teaching strategies to teach different aspects of writing development.

The schools visited had policies which envisaged teaching initial writing skills through an approach which concentrated on encouraging independent writing of different kinds. The documents stressed that opportunities for writing in different forms would arise from writing activities in cross-curricular as well as English contexts. The policies placed less emphasis on teaching methods which relied on pupils copying teacher-generated text.

(b) Schemes of Work

Ten Key Stage 1 schools had Schemes of Work which explicitly mentioned Writing. The layout of these Schemes varied from school to school. One school broke down its Schemes of Work into the English Attainment Targets; each Attainment Target was further divided into level-related sheets. Each level-related sheet was made up of four columns headed Statements of Attainment; Children's Assessment; Teaching Practice; Resources. The Teaching Practice column outlined various strategies to facilitate the pupil achieving the relevant Statement( s) of Attainment.

Two Schemes of Work were much lengthier documents. Their nature was more like that of an English Policy with general rather than specific aims and objectives. Two other schools outlined learning objectives associated with English in their Schemes of Work. In both cases, one of the objectives was linked to developing a specific writing skill, One of these schools operated with these Schemes on a weekly basis while the other Schemes covered a term.

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The remainder and majority of the Schemes of Work were similar in format. Work was planned around a cross-curricular topic. This was then sub-divided into distinct subject areas. The Schemes then outlined specific writing activities under the general English heading or sub-divided the section further into the English Attainment Targets. These Schemes of Work varied from simply listing to describing in detail a given writing activity. Some covered distinct year groups while others referred to a whole Key Stage. The length of time covered in the Schemes varied from one week, to a half-term, to a whole term.

(iii) Classroom Observation

Observations of work in classrooms showed what teachers taught as opposed to what they planned for initial writing skills. A summary of the observations from classrooms is presented in Table 14 below.

Table 14 % of Teaching Writing Activities observed in Key Stage 1 classrooms

Key Stage 1 teachers provided many opportunities for pupils to write independently without direct teacher intervention, As preparation for the SAT, schools visited had timetabled regular weekly sessions for pupils to write independently of their teacher. Activities ranged from pupils writing their own stories individually or collaboratively, to writing up experiments or reports. Teachers usually provided the stimulus and context for these independent writing activities: thus s/he would direct pupils to fill in a news diary or write a story about a given theme, However, this was the extent of

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teacher intervention. The remainder of the teacher's role in such activities was usually to monitor the work and assist with spellings if required. (This limited teacher intervention is why the writing task was categorised as independent writing.)

Independent writing of this kind was an important element of teaching initial writing skills. Although not an explicit teaching strategy as such (because of the minimum amount of direct teacher intervention), the activity was important for two reasons. Firstly, it gave pupils opportunities to practise composing lengthy texts in forms they had seen modelled in books. Secondly, it provided the teacher with a means of assessing how competent pupils were in writing without relying on their teacher for support with composing content. Teachers in the interviews said they now put more emphasis on creating opportunities for independent writing in order to prepare their pupils for this aspect of the Writing SAT. In other words, they provided pupils with opportunities to practise for the test.

In general, if this kind of writing took place in an English context it consisted of writing a narrative, e.g. about a character or story in a book that the class had read together. In contrast, pupils' independent writing activities across the curriculum usually involved their reporting an experience arising from cross-curricular work,

e.g. Pupils wrote about a sound-journey they had been on. Each piece of work contributed to make a 'Big-Book' on sounds. SCIENCE YrR/1

Key Stage 1 pupils were also taught how wordbooks/ dictionaries and the general print environment (e.g. wall labels, list of words on the board) could help them in their writing. At the very early stages of writing the teacher acted as a scribe, allowing individual pupils to compose texts of a greater length or complexity than they would physically be able to produce.

There were a few instances of the teacher acting as a model by writing on the board or in pupils' books for them to copy. There were a very few instances of pupils using supports such as the computer or the Breakthrough to Literacy materials, to compose or copy writing.

Thus at Key Stage 1, observation in classrooms showed that teachers fostered writing which was composed by the pupils with a varying amount of teacher intervention, rather than relying on pupils learning how to write by copying teacher-generated text. These observations can be compared with teachers' diary entries at Key Stage 1 which are discussed in (iv) below.

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(iv) Writing Diaries

Teachers in the Key Stage 1 schools visited were invited to fill in diaries which recorded instances of teaching writing. These diaries were filled in after the project team's visit.

The framework for teaching writing was compared with these diaries. Results are shown in Table 16 below. The table shows that the distribution of the compositional and secretarial aspects of writing in the diaries exactly matches that of the school documents.

Table 15 % Summary of Activities in Writing Diaries - Key Stage 1

As with the observations in classrooms, the largest category noted in the diaries involved teachers providing opportunities for pupils to write independently. This was clearly seen as an important teaching strategy despite the lack of direct teaching involved. Such independent writing encompassed a variety of forms: e.g. composing stories, making their own adverts, writing science reports. Each instance of this kind of writing in the diaries is presented below in order to illustrate the range of forms of writing at Key Stage 1. This range is representative of both the observations in classrooms and the diary entries.

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English contexts

Pupils were writing a pirate story. Teacher acted as a scribe for less able pupils though others tried and wrote the story on their own using wordbooks. YrR/1

Individual pupils filled in a book review sheet in which they had to express their own opinions. YrR/1

Pupils wrote independently in their own news record/diary. Teacher worked with groups of six pupils analysing their writing progression within the diary. The discussion mainly focused on putting capital letters and full stops in the correct place. Yr2

Teacher read part of a story and then pupils had to make up their own ending. Yr2

Pupils wrote and made their own newspaper adverts. Yr2

Pupils were making a book about the Christmas story. They wrote the beginning of the story without any help from the teacher. The work was then re-drafted if necessary with the teacher. Yr2

Pupils wrote their own sentences linked to the story of Jack and the Beanstalk. YrR/1

Pupils wrote their own sentences linked to the story The Rainbow Machine in the Story Chest series. YrR/1

Pupils wrote sentences linked to a Puddlelane story. YrR/1

Pupils wrote a report of a science experiment, using wordbooks or dictionaries to help them. Yr2

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Summary

Teaching methods concentrated on encouraging the pupils to create their own texts rather than copying their teacher's model. This was evident in classroom observation and in teachers' diary entries.

Independent writing, the teacher acting as scribe and pupils collaborating on written work - all these were consistent with schools' policies. There was a mismatch, however, between the theory of writing across the curriculum encouraging writing in varied forms and the reality found in the classroom. Pupils write narratives in English contexts and write reports in other curriculum areas.

(iv) Teacher Perceptions

The sections above have examined what teachers planned to do and what they actually did in teaching initial writing skills. Generally there was a consistency in the analyses of these data. This next section examines how teachers perceived they taught early writing.

Both Headteachers and their staff said that there was now more emphasis on specifically preparing pupils for the SAT, with the increased emphasis on punctuation and spelling in unaided writing. One teacher summarised this as follows:

'(The) assessment is too narrow. A good piece of work may have to be rejected because it doesn't fulfil some (e.g. punctuation) criteria. Creativity doesn't get credit, we credit technicians.'

The questions in the National Survey were designed to draw further responses on the teaching of initial writing skills. The same questionnaire was used in some of the interviews with individual teachers in the schools visited. The respondents were presented with the writing framework (section 4.2.3(i)) and asked to identify five activities that they used most frequently when teaching initial writing skills. Information gathered from fieldwork schools and from the National Survey is almost identical in this respect. The three categories that scored highest and accounted for approximately 50% of the data were:

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Table 16 % of Most Frequently Identified Strategies for Teaching Writing at Key Stage 1

This supports the observations in classrooms with the exception that slightly less emphasis was placed on independent writing in the National Survey, As was stated earlier, independent written work was an important resource for assessing pupils' competence and ability and has limited teacher intervention. This may explain its lower score in the National Survey.

Teachers were also asked to what extent they thought their teaching of writing to have changed. 37% of class teachers and 46% of English Coordinators acknowledged such a change. The fact that more English Coordinators acknowledged change may be due to their responsibility for ensuring implementation of the English Order throughout the school. They were chiefly responsible for writing English-related policy documents (see section 2.0: Manageability). As a result, they may well have had a clearer insight into how at least at document level, the Order had affected their schools' teaching of writing.

Since the introduction of the English Order, teachers commonly identified using a wider range of forms of writing and claimed to place more emphasis on 'emergent writing'. This corresponded with the other sources of information. There was one exception: although opportunities for writing in different forms was documented in the language policies it was rarely observed in the classroom. Teachers also perceived there to be a greater emphasis on drafting and editing, (as in the school documents, but this was not found in classrooms) and on grammar and punctuation.

Summary

Interviews with teachers suggested that there was still a sense that there was a lack of fit between teachers' perceptions of their own teaching of writing, their plans for this and what they actually did in class while teaching writing.

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4.3 Handwriting: The Teaching of Handwriting and its Developmental Sequence at Key Stages 1 and 2

4.3.1 Introduction

Handwriting is:

the physical skill of writing which is concerned with 'legibility' and economy of movement for correct letter, word and sentence formation. (Alston and Taylor 1987: 1)

The project team was asked to investigate the teaching methods associated with handwriting (section 4.4.2 below). In addition, they were asked to see whether there is a developmental sequence in handwriting competence (section 4.4.3 below). In the Order, Statements of Attainment pertaining to handwriting skills occur between Levels 1 and 5. It is for this reason that the sections below concentrate on Key Stages 1 and 2.

4.3.2 The Teaching of Handwriting

The team devised a framework for observing methods of teaching Handwriting. This framework originated in part from the detailed provisions of the Programmes of Study for (AT 3) Writing, (AT 4) Spelling and (AT 5) Handwriting; and NSG (NCC 1990) (paras B3.4 - B3.10) which supports the Order. In addition, techniques for teaching handwriting have been extended after initial observations of handwriting teaching in classrooms, to form the framework outlined below. The paragraphs in the NSG imply that there is a distinction between explicit teaching techniques to one or more pupils and strategies employed when monitoring individual pupils. These two strands have been incorporated into the framework shown below.

4.3.2(i) The Framework

The framework was used to analyse teaching methods in the classroom observation, diary, school document and survey data. Each type of data is discussed in the sub-sections which follow.

Explicit Teaching Strategies

Teacher uses the blackboard to demonstrate
Teacher writes in pupil's book to demonstrate
Teaching using worksheet/published Scheme

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Teaching using kinaesthetic activities (e.g. drawing letter shapes in the air)
Teaching using tracing exercises
Teaching by pupil writing over teacher's writing
Teaching the difference between upper and lower case letter formation
Teaching using 'movement families' for teaching letter formation

Monitoring Individuals

Teaching individuals in context of their own writing
Pupils dictate then copy teacher's writing
Teacher watches pupil's handwriting for purpose of diagnosis.

The team in addition noted what types of script (print, print with serifs, cursive) were used in the print environment of different classrooms. The framework itself is equally applicable to print or cursive styles of handwriting.

4.3.2(ii) School Documents

School documents offer information about how English coordinators and class teachers plan to teach handwriting. Policy documents, Schemes of Work and school development plans are discussed below.

(a) Policy Documents

Inspection of the policy documents showed that they contained the same kinds of information on the teaching of handwriting at both Key Stages 1 and 2. This focused on distinct explicit teaching strategies covering the use of worksheets or published Schemes, teaching using kinaesthetic activities and the use of 'movement families' in teaching letter formation. In addition, the policies advocated that handwriting be taught in the context of pupil's own writing. At both Key Stages, the policy documents reflected the requirements of the Order.

A summary of the analysis of the policy documents is presented in Table 17 below.

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Table 17 % of Teaching Methods for Handwriting Described in Policy Documents

*Most frequently mentioned.

Kinaesthetic activities, worksheets or published Schemes, and the use of 'movement families' were most commonly recommended at both Key Stages 1 and 2. The published Schemes, Cripps (1991) and Nelson, (Smith and Inglis 1984) were frequently mentioned in both Key Stage 1 and 2 policies.

All of these strategies could involve the whole class or group or an individual pupil. At both Key Stages, the policy documents advised teachers to discuss handwriting in the context of the pupil's own writing.

(b) Schemes of Work

At both Key Stages, Schemes of Work were very diverse in terms of form and content. Generally though, they outlined learning objectives for the pupils rather than explicit methods of teaching handwriting. These learning objectives were commonly linked to Statements of Attainment.

Some Schemes listed activities and appropriate resources for helping pupils attain specific Statements of Attainment. Some outlined English activities linked to a topic. These activities were broken down into the different Attainment Targets and in this way handwriting was accounted for. In most cases, however, the handwriting activities were not explicitly linked to the overall theme of the topic.

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This indicated that handwriting was one area of English that was planned as a separate activity (see Section 2.0: Manageability).

Schemes of Work ranged from plans for one week to those incorporating a whole term's work. They also varied in terms of the range of pupils catered for. Some targeted specific ability groups, whilst others were aimed at all the pupils in an entire Key Stage.

(c) School Development Plans

One Key Stage 1 school identified handwriting as an area of focus for their school development plan. This involved researching an appropriate published Scheme for the school to follow and building up appropriate resources for developing handwriting, with the aim of helping pupils develop a fluent style to achieve Level 3.

4.3.2(iii) Classroom Observation

The framework for teaching handwriting was used to analyse what was observed in classrooms. Key Stage 1 practice roughly corresponded to what was planned in the policy documents discussed above. In contrast, observations in Key Stage 2 classrooms did not reflect closely the planning found in Key Stage 2 documentation. This analysis is summarised in the table below.

Table 18 % Summary of Handwriting Activities Observed in Classrooms at Key Stages 1 and 2

*Most frequently observed.

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At Key Stages 1 and 2, recorded instances of handwriting show that handwriting activities were rarely linked to the theme of an over-arching topic, if there was one. Handwriting teaching was usually in the context of the pupils' work. This practice corresponded with the planning in Schemes of Work.

At Key Stage 1, teaching of kinaesthetic activities was the most frequently observed activity. At Key Stage 2, this strategy was used less often. There was, however, an increased use of the blackboard.

At Key Stage 1, in addition to using kinaesthetic activities (13%), teachers wrote on the board (10%) and in pupils' books (10%) to demonstrate letter formation. However, the most common strategy was close monitoring of pupils' handwriting. It accounted for 26% of the observed instances of teaching handwriting. There was more emphasis on monitoring individuals in the observation data than in the documents. The other observed activities roughly corresponded to those identified in the policy documents.

Clearly at Key Stage 2, the most common explicit teaching strategy was for the teacher to demonstrate letter formation or joining strokes on the board (31%). The use of worksheets/published Schemes was also frequently observed (13%). This was more frequent than at Key Stage 1. There was also emphasis on these activities in the document data. However, the document data also recommended teaching using movement families and kinaesthetic activities which occurred very infrequently in the observation data. The use of the blackboard had three times more emphasis in the observed classroom practice than in the documents. Indeed, in terms of explicit teaching strategies, what was planned in the documents was not supported by observations of classroom practice. The handwriting framework used in this analysis was not wholly represented in the observation data at Key Stage 2, as some categories were not observed at all. This indicated that the teaching strategies recommended by the Order and supported by the Non-Statutory Guidance were not reflected in classroom practice at Key Stage 2.

In terms of 'monitoring individuals', Key Stage 2 teachers spent the greatest amount of time looking at pupils' handwriting for diagnostic purposes. This accounted for the majority (47%) of observed instances of teaching handwriting. However, there was very little direct teaching of individual pupils observed at Key Stage 2. Again this contrasted with the document data which placed most emphasis on teaching individuals in the context of their own writing. This further suggested that the Order and NSG were not being fully implemented in the classroom practice observed at Key Stage 2. This was in contrast to Key Stage 1 observation which largely corresponded to the planning in the school documents. Thus it can be said that the Order and NSG were being put into practice in Key Stage 1 classrooms.

Information about the print environment indicated that slightly more Key Stage 1 schools relied on print, or print with serifs, than cursive scripts. However,

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the majority of Key Stage 2 schools used cursive or a mixture of cursive and print scripts.

4.3.2(iv) Handwriting Diaries

The framework for teaching handwriting was applied to the handwriting diaries. Observation and diary data combined provide a picture of how handwriting was taught at Key Stages 1 and 2.

The table below summarises what teachers recorded in the diaries. There was a greater distribution of different activities in the Key Stage 1 than the Key Stage 2 diaries.

Table 19 Handwriting Diaries - Key Stages 1 and 2

*Most frequently recorded.

At Key Stage 1, few teachers recorded teaching individual pupils in the context of their own writing. This may be because the focus (or implied focus) of the diaries seemed to suggest separate, structured handwriting activities. The majority of recorded instances of teaching handwriting involved the use of worksheets or published Schemes (27%). This figure is far higher than that observed in Key Stage 1 classrooms (8%). Most worksheets consisted of activities set up to develop motor skills (e.g. dot-to-dot patterns) or specific letter formation (e.g. tracing over a letter). The use of other explicit teaching strategies such as use of blackboard and

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pupils' books to demonstrate as well as kinaesthetic activities, corresponded to the observation data. This in turn corresponded to the documentary evidence.

With regard to the print environment, apart from strategies using movement families, there was only one entry that explicitly referred to joined-up/cursive script in Key Stage 1 diaries.

The recorded instances of handwriting in Key Stage 2 diaries concentrate on only four strands of the framework. Of these the majority involved the teacher monitoring a pupil's handwriting for diagnosis (43%). The next highest scoring category involved the teacher demonstrating letter formation on the board (38%). The diary data show that such teaching was usually in response to the teacher observing errors in diagnosing individual pupils' handwriting. Other categories recorded were teaching by demonstrating letter formation in pupils' books (9.5%) and teaching individuals in the context of their own writing (9.5%). All Key Stage 2 diary entries explicitly referred to the process of writing in cursive script.

Very few categories of the framework were represented in the diary or observation data: further evidence that the Order was not being implemented fully at Key Stage 2.

4.3.2(v) Teacher Perceptions

(a) Headteacher and Whole Staff Meetings

At both Key Stages, the majority of Headteachers said that there had been a change in their schools' approach to the teaching of handwriting. In most cases this was claimed to be as a result of the implementation of the SAT. In order to allow more pupils to attain Level 3 of the current Writing SAT, many schools had introduced the teaching of cursive writing earlier than they had previously. In addition, headteachers made general comments about how handwriting was now being taught more explicitly with targeted lessons for handwriting in groups or the whole class. However, two Headteachers (one at each Key Stage) expressed reservations about implementing any more changes because of the proposed revision of the Order.

The teachers interviewed in the Key Stage 1 and 2 whole staff meeting agreed with the Headteachers' responses. Any change they had made to their teaching was seen to have been as a result of the SAT requirements and was in the form of a more formal teaching approach and the earlier introduction of cursive writing.

(b) Teacher Interviews

Individual teachers were asked if they thought the way they taught handwriting had changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum. More Key Stage 1 English Coordinators (44%) than Key Stage 1 class teachers (35%) perceived there to have been some change. The earlier introduction of cursive writing accounted for 47% of Key Stage 1 responses pertaining to change in teaching handwriting. At Key Stage 2 change was identified in the areas of an earlier introduction of cursive writing (39%), an increased use of published Schemes (23%) and a more formal,

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structured approach (20%) to their handwriting teaching. These stated views supported those of the Headteachers and whole staff meetings across both Key Stages.

In addition, when respondents identified which handwriting script they used, 65% of Key Stage 1 teachers and 55% of Key Stage 2 teachers mentioned teaching cursive writing. This was in contrast to the observations and diary entries where pupils at Key Stage 1 commonly used print script or print with serifs.

Most teachers interviewed (79%) said that they taught handwriting both as a separate decontextualised activity and within the context of the pupils' own writing. They were asked to identify teaching strategies that they most commonly used to teach handwriting. The following activities were most frequently mentioned at Key Stage 1.

Activities

All of these strategies were frequently mentioned in the school documents and all but the 'movement families' technique were commonly observed in the classrooms and recorded in the diaries. In addition, all strands of the framework for teaching handwriting were mentioned in the interview data.

Key Stage 2 teachers identified the following teaching strategies as the most commonly used.

Activities

Although these activities matched the document data, they did not correspond with what was observed in classrooms and recorded in diaries. In other words, teachers' perceptions and planning reflected the Order, but this was not extended into the classroom. This was in contrast to Key Stage 1, where the analysis of the different data using the handwriting framework indicated that the Order was reflected in the planning and teaching of handwriting.

4.3.2(vi) Conclusion

The framework identified at the beginning of section 4.3.2 was originally derived from the English Order and the Non-Statutory Guidance. The analysis of all strands of the data using this framework has therefore assessed how far the handwriting elements of the National Curriculum for English were being implemented.

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At Key Stage 1, the Order was reflected in the planning and teaching of handwriting and in teachers' perceptions of this provision. However, by contrast at Key Stage 2, the requirements of the Order, while being seen to be reflected in teachers' planning and their perceptions of their teaching, were not observed to be in evidence in practice.

4.3.3 The Developmental Sequence of Handwriting

The project team was also asked to investigate progression in handwriting through Key Stages 1 and 2. A possible developmental sequence for handwriting is outlined below.

(i) The Sequence Outlined

The sequence below has emerged as a result of text-book research, primarily Jarman (1979), in so far as it matches the Statements of Attainment; of data obtained from school documents; and from a consideration of the sequence outlined in ATs 5 and 4/5.

Teachers were asked about sequence in relation to the pupils they teach:

Pupils can:

(a) copy printed or joined-up words and sentences with control over size, shape and orientation of letters or lines of writing,
(b) in their own writing, begin to form letters with some control over size, shape and orientation of writing in both print (with serifs) and joined up,
(c) begin to differentiate between the shapes of capital letters and small letters in both joined-up and print (with serifs),
(d) produce recognisably formed letters which have clear ascenders and descenders where necessary in both joined up and print (with serifs),
(e) begin to join letters and write a simple joined-up hand,
(f) begin to space words appropriately in both print and joined-up writing,
(g) produce clear and legible handwriting in printed style,
(h) produce more fluent joined-up writing in independent work,
(i) begin to develop a personal cursive hand,
(j) produce clear and legible handwriting in cursive style.

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Stranding the Sequence

This sequence (a - j) has been amalgamated into three strands. These strands are not necessarily distinct as some items (such as d) can occur both in copying and in independent writing.

The progression towards independence, eventually leading to a clear, legible style, was felt to be an important developmental sequence with clear implications for teaching strategies (and perhaps assessment). The following stranding has therefore been adopted:

(a) copying,
(b) independent work,
(c) personal style.

An indication of how the strands (a) - (j) correspond to the headings, copying; independent; and personal style, is illustrated in Table 20 which follows.

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Table 20 Illustrating the Sequence and Stranding of Handwriting Development

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4.3.3(ii) School Documents

Policy documents were found to be the most useful sources of information on sequential development of handwriting. These are discussed below, using the developmental framework to assess how far the Order was used in planning.

The policy documents gave a good deal of information relating to the early stages of the developmental framework as identified in section 4.3.3(i) above. Much of the information in the Key Stage 1 documents was repeated in the Key Stage 2 documents. Additional information about the development of cursive writing was also supplied in the Key Stage 2 documents. Where the documents referred to a style of handwriting, the emphasis was usually on developing cursive writing from the reception years. In addition, many of the documents made reference to the developmental links between handwriting and spelling. Table 21 below summarises this analysis.

Table 21 % of Activities in Sequential Development of Handwriting Found in the English Policies at Key Stages 1 and 2

*Most frequently mentioned.

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These data indicate that the stages (a) to (d) in Table 21 above were most frequently referred to in the Key Stage 1 policy documents. These stages have the highest scores and thus roughly correspond to the developmental sequence outlined in the early stages of the framework in section 4.3.3(i) above.

Stages which refer to the size and orientation of letter formation refer to either print or cursive script according to the agreed handwriting style of the whole school. The majority of documents stated that cursive writing should be taught from reception. Other policies, however, advocated the use of print script throughout Key Stage 1. Further policies mentioned that print with serifs should be taught in reception, moving towards cursive writing in Y2. In addition, 44% of schools considered the developmental links between spelling and handwriting.

The handwriting framework reflected the content of the policy documents at Key Stage 1. As the framework derived from the Order, this indicated that the developmental sequence for handwriting in the Order was being carried through to planning in the classroom.

The same applied in Key Stage 2, with the majority of documents mentioning the earlier stages of development. In addition to the four stages outlined in the Key Stage 1 (a) to (d) above, the further two stages (d) and (h) of the framework were also frequently mentioned at Key Stage 2.

Therefore, at Key Stage 2 there was a move towards more cursive writing Indeed, the majority of policies, if they did mention a script, discussed using cursive writing from the reception years. As at Key Stage 1, many schools (46%) discussed the developmental links between handwriting and spelling.

Since so much of the developmental framework was reflected in the documents, it was clear that the Order was generally being translated into the planning stages of school documentation at Key Stages 1 and 2.

4.3.3(iii) Classroom Observation

In order to see how far this framework was evident in classroom practice, data from schools and classrooms were analysed. The main bulk of information was to be found in the school document and national survey data as notions of development are difficult to capture in relatively short times in the classroom. However, data from classrooms added to the survey and document data and is thus discussed below.

At Key Stage 1, pupils were observed to rely heavily on copying as a means of practising handwriting. They also were conscious of their handwriting in their independent writing, especially in Years 1 and 2. Some Key Stage 1 pupils were beginning to develop their own personal style (though all these instances occurred in the same school, where there was a strong emphasis on the introduction of cursive handwriting from Reception classes onwards).

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At Key Stage 2, pupils were no longer copying 'printed words and sentences with control over size, shape and orientation of letters or lines of writing' (stage a). They had moved towards independent writing and were showing signs of developing a personal style.

This indicated, as expected, that the notion of one type of development being the move from copying towards independence culminating in a personal style, was a valid one. It also supports the interpretation of the developmental sequence in the school document data. Thus it can be said that this aspect of the Order was being implemented in Key Stage 1 and 2 classrooms.

4.3.3(iv) Teacher Perceptions

The teachers were shown the sequence and asked to identify stages which the majority of their pupils could achieve,

At Key Stage 1, the teachers who were interviewed identified the following stages of development most frequently as representative of the majority of their pupils.

In their own writing, pupils can:

These stages are not consistent with the early stages of development identified in sections 4.3.3(i) and (iii) above. By identifying stages (d) and (f), Key Stage 1 teachers had a higher perception of what their pupils could achieve than was recorded in other sources of data. However, these stages were required as evidence of attainment in the 1992 SAT Assessment Record Booklet. This may have led to teachers' perceptions being influenced by the SAT.

Teachers in Key Stage 2 identified the following stages of development as most representative of the majority of their pupils.

Pupils can:

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In Key Stage 1, teachers' planning and practice were broadly consistent. What was noticeable, however, was the lack of consistency in teachers' perceptions of how pupils' handwriting developed.

These stages support the document and observation evidence which showed pupils using cursive script in independent writing while progressing towards the development of a personal style. This indicates that these teachers clearly understood the requirements of the Order.

At Key Stage 2, there was a greater level of comparability across planning, teaching and teachers' perceptions of handwriting development.

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4.4 Spelling: The Teaching of Spelling at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 and its Developmental Sequence at Key Stages 1 and 2

4.4.1 Introduction

Spelling has two main functions. Firstly, it is an important tool for writers since automatic correct spelling frees them to concentrate on the compositional aspects of writing. Secondly, spelling is an essential aid to communication, since a text full of inaccurate spellings causes problems for the reader. Accurate spelling therefore aids comprehension.

A competent speller needs to have mastered a number of sub-skills:

(a) knows the visual appearance (the shape) of the word,
(b) knows the regularity and irregularity of the sound-symbol relations,
(c) knows which letters are likely to occur together, e.g. q is always followed by u, (orthographic probability),
(d) knows how words are constructed (based on both morphological and etymological information such as prefixes, suffices and root words).

This section examines what teaching methods are being employed in schools with regard to spelling (section 4.4.2), and whether the data show a sequence in teachers' perceptions which is appropriate in their teaching and planning (section 4.4.3).

4.4.2 The Teaching of Spelling

Initial observations of teaching spelling gave rise to a framework against which a range of teaching methods used by teachers to develop pupils' spelling competence can be examined. This framework has been developed from the Programmes of Study and paragraph 3.2 page B8 of the NSG. Paragraph 3.2 in the NSG distinguishes between explicit teaching techniques and teacher provision for the learning of spelling. Therefore, these two strands have been incorporated into the framework which follows.

4.4.2(i) The Framework

A. Explicit Teaching Methods

(a) Teacher teaches 'irregular' spelling patterns. (The English spelling system is a mixture of different traditions, based on Anglo-Saxon, French, Latin

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and Greek spelling patterns, Teachers therefore teach about the apparent irregularities of words such as 'through' and 'bough'.)

(b) Teacher teaches regular spelling patterns. (The teacher discusses how words are made up of units which remain fixed, such as 'discuss' and 'discussion'. )

B. Creating Independence

These strands focus on teachers providing pupils with strategies for attempting unfamiliar words. These include:

(c) Teacher helps pupil use a dictionary,
(d) Teacher teaches the 'look, cover, write, check' method. This is summarised below:

(i) Teacher writes the word and says it to the pupil.
(ii) The pupil looks at the word and says it.
(iii) The pupil covers the word and tries to remember what it looks like.
(iv) The pupil writes the word in full from memory without checking each letter.
(v) The pupil checks what s/he has written with what the teacher had originally written.
(vi) If the pupil mis-spells the word, s/he repeats steps (ii) - (v).

The following strands deal with approaches the teacher uses when a pupil asks for a word, or indicates that s/he requires help by using strategies such as the 'magic line' in the context of his or her writing.

(e) Teacher writes the spelling in the pupil's wordbook with or without comment.
(f) Teacher corrects spelling in context of pupil's writing with or without comment.
(g) Teacher helps the pupil sound out the letters of the word the pupil requires.

The strands (e) - (g) may be accompanied by any of the techniques discussed in strands (a) - (d) above.

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D. Assessment Techniques

One aspect of teaching is the monitoring by the teacher of the pupils' spelling competence:

(h) Teacher gives pupils a spelling list for learning. (This list of words could arise from the reading scheme, from the topic of work, or be an individual list of words a pupil has been frequently mis-spelling.)
(i) Teacher tests spelling. (This could be in the form of a dictation, comprehension or a set of lists of words.)

E. Provisions

The following concentrate on the contexts in which spelling is taught. Any of the teaching strategies discussed above could be used,

(j) Spelling is taught as part of ongoing activity.
(k) Spelling is taught as a separate lesson.
(l) Published/Teacher devised spelling Schemes are used.
(m) Teacher points out word in print environment (including computer program).

This framework is applicable to all three Key Stages. It accounted for the teaching of spelling either as a separate lesson or in response to an individual pupil's needs. By applying this framework to the range of data across Key Stages 1 - 3, a picture of how spelling was taught emerged.

4.4.2(ii) School Documents

The framework was used to analyse which teaching methods were advocated in school documentation. This documentation indicated what teachers planned to do when teaching spelling. English policies, Schemes of Work and other documentation were treated separately and are discussed below.

In general, explicit advice about the planning and the teaching of spelling was located in policies rather than the Schemes of Work at Key Stages 1 and 2. These policies stressed the importance of teaching about sound-symbol relationships and the use of visual imagery in learning to spell. At Key Stage 3, specific references to activities and strategies for teaching spelling were located in the Schemes of Work, rather than the policies. Thus at Key Stages 1 and 2 planning for teaching spelling tended to be a set of general aims, whereas at Key Stage 3 planning was targeted towards specific activities for developing pupils' spelling competence.

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(a) Policy Documents

Table 22 summarises the analysis of policy documents using the framework. The analysis shows that in general terms the distribution of strategies for teaching spelling was comparable across the policy documentation at all Key Stages. The exception to this is that as pupils progressed through the Key Stages, teachers were more likely to teach about spelling using explicit teaching methods.

Table 22 % of Teaching Methods for Spelling Described in Policy Documents

At both Key Stages 1 and 2, policy documents emphasised that teachers needed to teach explicitly 'irregular' and 'regular' spelling patterns. Further emphasis was placed on the importance of teaching pupils how to use a dictionary appropriately, and on using the print environment (including the computer) as a spelling aid. The importance of developing good visual memory was enforced by a large proportion of policies advocating the use of the 'Look, Cover, Write, Check' strategy. There was slightly more emphasis in the Key Stage 1 policies on the role of sound-symbol relationships in spelling new words. At both Key Stages there was little emphasis on giving pupils spelling lists or spelling tests.

At Key Stage 3, the policy documents gave more general rather than specific advice on teaching methods. When advice was given, this included teaching the pupils about 'regular' and 'irregular' spelling patterns and on the value of the 'Look, Cover, Write, Check' strategy.

The majority of Key Stage 3 policies required teachers to take opportunities to teach spelling when commenting on an individual pupil's work. In addition to this, Key Stage 1 and 2 documents also mentioned teaching spelling in separate lessons. No distinction was made in the policies across the Key Stages between teaching spelling in separate English contexts or across the curriculum.

(b) Schemes of Work

At Key Stages 1 and 2 any reference to spelling tended to be non-specific and generalised. Only one Scheme of Work at Key Stage 1 went into any specific detail about planning for spelling activities. Within this document, plans for

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each week were devoted to a particular topic. Within one week (where the topic was 'Food'), the Reception pupils' spelling activities were to make alphabet soup and then spell three letter words from alphabet letters on the floor. During the same week the Year 2 pupils worked on specific consonant blends at the beginning, middle or end of words. Other Schemes were more general or did not mention spelling at all.

At Key Stage 2, few schools explicitly mentioned spelling in their Schemes of Work and when they did these references were very general. For example, one school was looking at the topic 'Houses and Homes' and while other English activities were directly related to this topic, the specific spelling objective was not. Instead, pupils were to be encouraged and shown how to:

• check spelling in a dictionary when revising and proof-reading. (AT 4 2c, 3d).
• use a variety of activities for help with understanding the alphabet and alphabetical order.
• play the dictionary game.
• look up words for the week - list according to ability, word patterns. (Extract from a Scheme of Work)

Two Key Stage 3 schools made explicit reference to spelling activities in their Schemes of Work. The first set of documents was divided into themes per year group. For example, in Yr 7 the theme was Myths and planned spelling activities included looking at classical word roots and alphabet ordering the spelling activity was directly related to the overall theme. In the second document, the Schemes of Work covered a term and provided objectives which the teacher should have covered by the end of that term. For spelling, the objective was to familiarise pupils with dictionaries. This involved activities such as games to reinforce alphabetical use; looking at how a dictionary works and what explanations mean; and strategies for finding words quickly.

(c) School Development Plans

Two Key Stage 1 schools targeted spelling as an area for review in their school development plans. In one school, one aim for the forthcoming year was very general in that it was to consider various approaches to the teaching of spelling. However, the other school gave spelling a higher focus in its development plan. The aim was for the school to develop a new spelling policy and to raise teacher awareness of the developmental stages in learning to spell. This was to involve a large-scale review of how spelling was taught, and the resources in the school. Lead staff were to research theoretical and educational perspectives on the teaching of spelling.

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4.4.2(iii) Classroom Observation

The framework for spelling was also used to analyse the data obtained through classroom observation. This provided a source of comparison with the school documents and examined how far school plans were put into practice.

The table below shows the results of this analysis. It indicates that the concentration on the first three categories (Explicit Teaching Methods, Creating Independence, Arising from pupils' Writing) in the school documents was not carried through into practice. Within classrooms, the majority of teaching of spelling occurred within the context of individual pupils' writing. Across the Key Stages there was very little emphasis on the explicit teaching of 'regular' and 'irregular' spelling patterns. Strategies to foster independence and pupil autonomy in attempting to spell new words were infrequently observed. In both planning and practice, assessment techniques were rarely recorded in any of the Key Stages.

Table 23 % of Spelling Activities Observed in Classrooms at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Key Stage 1

The main context for teaching spelling was in response to the needs of individual pupils, In addition, the most common teaching strategy was for the teacher to help the pupil sound out (or spell phonetically) a word the pupil had asked for in the context of his/her own work. This strategy accounted for 36% of observed instances of teaching spelling. Teaching spelling as a separate activity accounted for 5% of observed instances. Other strategies regularly employed included teachers taking opportunities to comment on spelling patterns when writing in wordbooks (10%) and to point out irregular spelling patterns (14%). The 'Look, Cover, Write, Check' method was also a common strategy employed by teachers (13%).

Teachers took opportunities to work with individual pupils, developing their sound-symbol awareness as well as helping pupils to look for and memorise the visual patterns of words. Observations generally concur with the policy documents, with the exception that there was more emphasis placed on teaching dictionary skills in the policies than was observed in the classroom.

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Key Stage 2

The major teaching approach was to comment on the spelling of words when correcting a piece of work. As with Key Stage 1, helping pupils to spell words phonetically accounted for a large proportion of teaching (22%). Teachers were beginning to teach pupils explicitly how to use a dictionary. This accounted for 11% of instances of teaching spelling.

However, there were no instances of using the 'Look, Cover, Write, Check' strategy, nor of teaching about 'irregular' spellings. Teaching 'regular' spelling patterns only accounted for 4% of the observed data. Thus there was not the same emphasis on developing pupils' visual memory of words as at Key Stage 1. This lack of emphasis does not match the planned spelling programme in the school documentation which stressed such techniques.

Key Stage 3

All the teaching about spelling arose in the context of a piece of written work. There were no instances of teaching spelling as a separate lesson. As with Key Stage 2, most teaching about spelling occurred in the context of the teacher marking a pupil's piece of work. Teachers also tended to write out the correct spelling of a word without discussing this spelling with the pupil. This accounted for 22% of instances of recorded teaching of spelling.

Teachers no longer spelled words phonetically using lower-case letter sounds. Rather they spelled out the word for the pupil, using the letter names. This accounted for 13% of the data. As with Key Stage 2, there was an emphasis on teaching pupils about dictionary use (13%). Teachers were more likely to address the whole class or group about spelling strategies than their Key Stage 1 or 2 counterparts (9%). This figure is still quite low and the activity was always in the context of a piece of written work. This contrasts with the targeted planning for spelling activities in the Schemes of Work for Key Stage 3.

There were no examples of explicit teaching about regular or irregular spelling patterns or about the strategy 'Look, Cover, Write, Check'. However, such strategies were mentioned in the school documentation, particularly in the Schemes of Work. The main emphasis in the Key Stage 3 documentation was to correct mis-spelling in the context of a pupil's work. This emphasis was carried through from the planning to what was observed in the classroom.

4.4.2(iv) Spelling Diaries

Diary entries and observations combined provided a more coherent picture of how spelling was taught at Key Stages 1 and 2. At Key Stage 1, these combined sources of information supported the planning for spelling in the school policy documents. However, at Key Stage 2 there was more emphasis on the assessment aspects of spelling in the diaries than in the observations. At Key Stage 3, the diary entries were insufficient to provide a useful comparison. Any disparity between these two sources of data could be as a result of the

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circumstances in which they were collected. During observations a picture of a typical day or longer was recorded in the classrooms; this may or may not have coincided with the teacher's plans to teach a specific lesson, By contrast, the diaries explicitly asked the teacher to record instances of teaching spelling without the constraints of a specific short-term time limit set by the observations. Teaching the whole class or group about spelling would therefore most naturally be noted in the diaries.

Table 24 % of Frequency of Activities Mentioned in Spelling Diaries at Key Stages 1 and 2

At Key Stage 1, class teachers' diary entries indicated there were more instances of spelling being taught as a separate lesson in the diaries than in the classroom observations. They accounted for 25% of the instances of teaching spelling. Other categories scoring highly included teaching about sound-symbol relations (17%) and using a published or teacher-devised scheme (13%). There were more instances of teachers correcting or commenting on mis-spelling in the pupils' own work in the diaries than during observations. All of these instances involved the pupil's first draft of a piece of written work.

The only categories not recorded in the diaries were those involving wordbooks and the use of tests. Teachers may not have written down instances of writing in or using wordbooks as they occurred so frequently that they were not regarded as explicit teaching strategies. There were no instances of explicitly testing spelling in either the Key Stage 1 observations or in the diaries.

At Key Stage 1, the combination of observations and diary entries was consistent with the planning for teaching spelling in the Key Stage 1 school policy documents.

Key Stage 2 diary entries presented a very different picture from observations in classrooms. There were more instances of spelling tests: indeed they accounted for the majority of spelling teaching (18%), yet did not feature at all in the observations. The 'Look, Cover, Write, Check' approach accounted for 15% of the diary entries though this approach was not observed in classrooms.

In contrast, there were no references in the diaries to teaching pupils how to use a dictionary, or to helping them sound out words. These were evident, however, in the observations. Similarly, commenting on spelling in the

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context of pupils' work only accounted for 15% of the diary entries, yet it formed the majority (41%) of the observations.

As with Key Stage 1, these sources of information indicated that at Key Stage 2, teachers carried out more formal aspects of teaching spelling, such as testing, and that classroom observations did not capture this. However, this was not always in accordance with how spelling was planned in the school documents at Key Stage 2.

4.4.2(v) Teacher Perceptions

This section brings together a range of information about teachers' perceptions of how they teach spelling. It includes semi-structured interviews with Headteachers, whole staff meetings at Key Stages 1 and 2, and structured interviews with teachers and national survey responses at Key Stages I, 2 and 3. Generally, Key Stage 1 and 2 teachers perceived the SATs rather than the curriculum to have altered their teaching of spelling. They felt that this had resulted in a more structured approach to teaching spelling, with the main focus being on developing their pupils' independence as competent spellers. This matched what was observed in classrooms and what teachers recorded in their diaries.

Headteacher and Whole Staff Meetings

Key Stage 1 and 2 Headteachers generally claimed that a more formal emphasis than previously was being placed on spelling because of SAT requirements. These Headteachers perceived there to be more whole class or large group teaching and a general increase in developing independence in spelling. This was to enable pupils to perform better in a SAT which tests unaided writing. The majority of Head teachers said that they had initiated new spelling policies since the implementation of the National Curriculum. They also commented on an increase in the use of published Schemes. However, one Headteacher explicitly expressed a reluctance to undertake such an initiation because of the proposed revision of the Order which may lead to further changes in policy documentation.

Meetings with school staffs echoed the information gained from the Headteachers in that they saw shift in emphasis on spelling because of the SAT requirements. This had resulted in more structured approaches to teaching spelling (e.g. increased use of 'Look, Cover, Write, Check'; and the strategy of looking at words within words to develop pupils' visual memory and understanding of orthographic probability). Teachers frequently stressed that they now had to develop teaching strategies for developing their pupils' ability to attempt the spelling of new words independently from the teacher. One staff meeting asked for additional guidance on how to do this.

One Key Stage 2 Headteacher said that all the staff had anxieties about assessment and were having meetings to agree on what was meant by the individual Statements of Attainment in AT 4.

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Teacher Interviews

Teachers were shown the framework for teaching spelling (section 4.4.2(a)) and asked to identify which methods they used most frequently. Teachers in all Key Stages identified the teaching of 'regular' and 'irregular' spelling patterns as a commonly employed strategy. Key Stage 1 teachers frequently chose the strategy of helping pupils sound out the letters of a word. This was supported by the observations and diary entries. At Key Stage 2, teachers emphasised assessment techniques. This matched the diary entries. It could be that teachers believe there to be an increase in testing, whilst this has not been borne out by observations. At both Key Stages 2 and 3, teaching about dictionary use was commonly identified.

With the exception of the emphasis on testing at Key Stage 2, teachers across all three Key Stages identified teaching strategies which also featured in other sources of data. In general, planning, practice and perceptions of that planning were corroborated. In addition, teachers of all Key Stages generally perceived there to have been no change in the teaching of spelling since the introduction of the National Curriculum. However, when change was acknowledged to have occurred, it was usually in the area of more formal structured teaching and in encouraging spelling independence in order to prepare pupils for the SATs. This claim concerning areas of change matched the responses made by Headteachers and teachers in whole staff meetings.

4.4.2 (vi) Conclusion

Planning for the teaching of spelling was found to be sets of general objectives located in policy documents at Key Stages 1 and 2. At Key Stage 3, by contrast, this planning was targeted towards specific activities detailed in Schemes of Work.

Evidence about actual practice was to be found in a combination of diary entries and observations. At Key Stages 1 and 3, these sources of information supported the planning for spelling located in the documents. However, at Key Stage 2 there was more emphasis on the more formal aspects of spelling (such as testing) in the diaries than in the observations and policy documentation.

Generally at Key Stages 1 and 2, perceptions about teaching practice were affected by the SATs rather than the Order itself In this respect, these perceptions did not always concur with information in the documents and observed in classrooms. At Key Stage 3, teachers generally perceived there to have been no change in their approach to teaching spelling, although some acknowledged that this had become more formal and structured since the introduction of the National Curriculum.

Overall, with regard to teaching spelling, the planning recorded in the documents was usually observed in classroom practice. However, teacher

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perceptions of this practice and their diary entries were not always as corroborative.

4.4.3 Developmental Sequence of Spelling

The project team was also asked to investigate the developmental stages by which pupils learn to spell. This involved a theoretical search as well as analysis of fieldwork data. This is presented below.

4.4.3(i) The Sequence Outlined

This sequence has been based on the work of Gentry (1982) where it is consistent with the Order; on data obtained from the school document strand of the fieldwork; and from a consideration of the sequence outlined in ATs 4 and 4/5 of the Order. The sequence is:

Pupils ...

(a) can use individual and combination letter-sound correspondence,

(b) are beginning to operate a sound-symbol system with evidence of word separation,

( c) can use a dictionary/wordbook but will often not look beyond the first letter of words and confuse words of similar visual appearance,

(d) can use sight recognition and visual meaning for 'irregular' spelling patterns, (e.g. 'rough', 'hiccough', 'through'),

(e) can use dictionary/word book correctly for most words needed,

(f) are beginning to build up and use a sight vocabulary of 'irregular' words and 'regular' patterns, understanding how they are used and using a dictionary correctly.

The sequence (a) - (f) above has been categorised into three strands: sound symbol; dictionary skills and orthographic probability. The strands are made up as follows:-

(I) SOUND SYMBOL

This encompasses the stage of development that links the sounds of language to a graphological representation.

Pupils ...

(a) can use individual and combination letter-sound correspondence,

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(b) are beginning to operate a sound-symbol system with evidence of word separation.

(II) DICTIONARY SKILLS

This strand covers pupils' developing competence at dictionary use. It builds on their knowledge of orthographic probability, morphology and etymology.

Pupils ...

(c) can use a dictionary/wordbook but will often not look beyond the first letter of words and confuse words of similar visual appearance,

(e) can use a dictionary/wordbook correctly for most words needed,

(f) are beginning to build-up and use a sight vocabulary of 'irregular' words and 'regular' patterns, understanding how they are used and using a dictionary correctly.

(III) ORTHOGRAPHIC PROBABILITY

This strand covers the skills involved in learning the rules of the English spelling system in spelling regular and irregular words.

Pupils ...

(d) can use sight recognition and visual meaning for 'irregular' spelling patterns (e.g. 'rough', 'hiccough', 'through'),

(f) are beginning to build up and use a sight vocabulary of , irregular' words and 'regular' patterns, understanding how they are used and using a dictionary appropriately.

In stranding the sequence in the above way, an important element appeared to be missing: the pupils' ability to move from dependence on the teacher in attempts to spell a word, towards independence. This strand has been labelled Growing Independence. It moves from simply copying words from the board/books/wall displays/wordbooks towards pupils only using a dictionary to check their own spelling attempts.

(IV) GROWING INDEPENDENCE

Pupils ...

(g) copying from the board/labels/books (including wordbooks where the teacher simply writes in wordbook with no commentary),

(h) asking for help in spelling a word,

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(i) attempting to spell a word and then checks with teacher,

(j) attempting a word without checking with the teacher.

4.4.3(ii) School Documents

This framework of spelling development was used to analyse school policy documents and thereby to assess whether teachers accounted for this development in their planning.

With regard to plotting a sequential development, policy documents rather than Schemes of Work were found to be most useful. Schemes of Work outlined activities rather than stages of development. Interestingly, one school development plan at Key Stage 1 mentioned raising the staff's awareness of the steps in learning to spell as one of its objectives for the coming year.

English/Language Policies

Policy documents across Key Stages 1 and 2 were examined to see if they made any reference to a developmental sequence for the learning of spelling. Where policies made such a reference, the level of detail varied from quoting extensively from theoretical works such as Gentry (quoted earlier section 4.4.3(i) ) to stating isolated, age-related levels of achievement.

Table 25 % of Activities in the Spelling Developmental Sequence found in English Policies at Key Stages 1 and 2

Table 25 indicates that at Key Stage 1, many policy documents explicitly commented on developing pupils' knowledge of the sound-symbol relationship in the English spelling system. The documents also drew attention to the

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importance of developing pupils' ability to remember the visual appearance of words,

Therefore, the stages of the project's framework most frequently referred to in the Key Stage 1 documents are (a), (b) and (d) from the Table above.

Key Stage 2 policy documents placed a similar emphasis on the stages of development outlined in the Key Stage 1 documents above. In addition they referred to the pupil's developing ability to use a dictionary or word-book appropriately. Thus the stages most frequently mentioned at Key Stage 2 are: (a), (b), (d) and (e).

Summary

The policy documents for Key Stages 1 and 2 generally made reference to spelling progression and showed a picture of sequential development that matched that in section 4.4.3(i) above. Only one stage was not explicitly mentioned in the documents. This was:

Pupils ...

(c) can use a dictionary/wordbook but will often not look beyond the first letter of words and confuse words of similar visual appearance.

4.4.3(iii) Classroom Observation Data

Data from classroom observations show what pupils were capable of and hence provided information about sequence and progression. The framework for spelling development was used to analyse these data.

Observations supported the documentary evidence at both Key Stages 1 and 2. They showed that at Key Stage 1 pupils relied heavily on a sound-symbol approach to spelling. They were beginning to be able to retain a visual picture of how familiar words were spelt. They could find the appropriate page in their alphabet-ordered wordbook when asking for spellings and were beginning to use wordbooks and dictionaries. Pupils relied heavily on copying words from a variety of sources. They also asked their teacher for help with individual words.

At Key Stage 2, pupils were familiar with the conventions of the English spelling system and could apply this knowledge in their attempts to spell words in their writing (e.g. that 'q' is always followed by 'u'; that a double consonant is often followed by a single vowel). They could successfully complete alphabet ordering exercises using a dictionary and could use dictionaries to help them spell the words they needed. They also knew how to use dictionaries to look up the meanings of words. They didn't rely solely on the teacher in asking for accurate spelling; they often asked their peers as well.

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Data obtained from fieldwork were in a sense arbitrary in that the team was not explicitly coding instances of spelling in their own right. Therefore a large number of examples of a given spelling instance could indicate that by chance the team observed more writing activities in a particular year group then say, for example, reading activities. However, these data suggested what pupils in each year group are capable of in terms of their spelling ability.

(a) Developmental Sequence at Key Stage 1

Pupils were capable of:

Sound Symbol

• saying which letter the word begins, when asking for a spelling,
• sounding out the letters of a word they wish to spell,
• writing down the letters of simple or familiar words (such as their name) as the teacher sounds the letters out,

• beginning to use a wordbook in writing their independent work,
• finding the appropriate page in their wordbook, when asked how to spell a word,
• finding their way around wordbooks with help (they can find the right page but do not always realise the word is already there),
• using dictionaries to look up the meanings of words,

• retaining visual pictures of how familiar words were spelt,

• copying, without discussion or commentary, words from wall displays, the board, books, word-books,
• asking for help with spelling words (they often ask before they've attempted the word themselves),
• beginning to attempt to spell a new word before checking with the teacher.

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Pupils ...

(c) can use a dictionary/wordbook but will often not look beyond the first letter of words and confuse words of similar visual appearance.

This stage was the only aspect of the framework not referred to in the Key Stage 1 and 2 documentation.

(b) Developmental Sequence at Key Stage 2

Pupils were capable of:

Sound Symbol

• relating most sounds to a graphological symbol where appropriate,

• doing alphabet ordering exercises using a dictionary,
• using dictionaries appropriately to help them spell the words they need in their independent work,
• using dictionaries to look up the meaning of words,

• discussing some of the conventions of the English spelling system such as the pattern that double consonants which were often followed by a single vowel,
• applying this knowledge in their own attempts to spell words needed in their own writing,
• working on exercises which focused on these conventions,

• copying words from wordbook,
• not relying solely on their teacher in asking for help with spelling - they often asked their peers,
• attempting to spell words and then check with the teacher or dictionary.

4.4.3(iv) Teacher Perceptions

In order to gauge whether the developmental sequence was appropriate, respondents were asked which two stages of the sequence represented the ability of the majority of their pupils in a given year group. Each Key Stage is

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treated separately. The stages of development were presented to them in random order.

(a) Key Stage 1

The respondents indicated that pupils were most capable of the following stages of the framework:

Pupils ...

(a) can use individual and combination letter-sound correspondence. (15%)

(b) are beginning to operate a sound-symbol system with evidence of word separation. (18%)

(e) can use dictionary/wordbook correctly for most words needed. (16%)

(f) are beginning to build up a sight vocabulary of 'irregular' words and regular patterns, understanding how they are used and using a dictionary appropriately. (15%).

It should be pointed out, however, that all stages of the framework scored to some extent. The above items represents the highest percentages. Stages (e) and (f) above were not found in the Key Stage 1 observations nor school documents. This could indicate that Key Stage 1 teachers had a slightly higher perception of what their pupils achieved than they plan or cater for in their classrooms.

(b) Key Stage 2

The respondents most frequently identified the following stages of development as representing the capabilities of their pupils:

Pupils ...

(b) are beginning to operate a sound-symbol system with evidence of word separation. (26%)

(d) can use sight recognition and visual meaning for 'irregular' spelling patterns. (14%)

(e) can use a dictionary or wordbook appropriately for most words needed. (25%).

These items indicate that teachers under-estimated the capabilities of their pupils: school policy documents showed they plan for, and observations indicated they cater for, a higher level of spelling competence.

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4.4.3(v) Conclusion

The variety of sources of information indicate that the proposed sequence of development for spelling is an appropriate one. Information relating to planning was located in the spelling policies rather than other documentation. At Key Stage 1, policy documents commented on developing pupils' knowledge of sound-symbol relationships and on memorising the visual appearance of words. Key Stage 2 documents placed a similar emphasis on these strands and in addition referred to planning to develop pupils' ability to use a dictionary appropriately.

The observations in classrooms illustrated what pupils were actually capable of. At Key Stage 1 this matched the documents, although there was slightly more emphasis on the early stages of dictionary use. Pupils at this Key Stage also relied heavily on copying words from a variety of sources. They also spent time asking the teacher for help with individual words. At Key Stage 2, the observations in classrooms generally supported the planning of the documentation data. There was also a development in their independence reflected by the pupils' willingness to attempt to spell words individually and rely on help from their peers rather than their teacher for checking.

Although the schools' documents and observations in classrooms generally concurred, teachers' responses to interviews were shown to be at odds with these other sources of evidence. At Key Stage 1, teacher perceptions overestimated what their pupils could achieve whilst Key Stage 2 teacher perceptions tended to under-estimate their pupils' competence.

Thus, with regard to developing spelling competence, the information in the planning documents was seen to be carried through into classroom practice at both Key Stages. Teacher perceptions, however, were seen to contradict the evidence. This suggests that teachers might benefit from further guidance and on how pupils develop their spelling ability.

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5.0 SPEAKING AND LISTENING

The specification outlines the areas for investigation with regard to Speaking and Listening. The specification states:

HMI evidence reveals that teachers are devoting more attention than previously to Speaking and Listening.

Despite this the balance may still be skewed away from En1. This will need to be investigated. If the balance between the time given to Attainment Targets is shown to be uneven, the reasons for this will require further study so that Council can publish appropriate guidance to schools. (Specification Issue 7)

The project has approached this issue of balance within the Order in a number of ways. In the first instance, an inspection of the Order itself has provided a framework for Speaking and Listening which categorises different types of talk.

The following sections describe this framework, before discussing the balance of Speaking and Listening in policy, practice and teacher perceptions.

5.1 Towards a Framework for Speaking and Listening

The framework derived from the Order was divided into two categories. The first incorporated the types of contexts in which Speaking and Listening might take place, whilst the second covered the specific types of talk which serve to communicate meaning.

It must be emphasised, however, that the following framework has arisen out of - and is applicable to - the English Order. It was not seen necessarily as a model for Speaking and Listening outside the context of this analysis.

The Speaking and Listening Framework

1. Types of Context

2. Types of Talk

Giving and responding to instructions.
Asking and answering questions.
Conveying or describing real and imaginary events.

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Conveying and describing information.
Conveying and describing points of view.
Listening and responding to real and imaginary events.
Listening and responding to information.
Listening and responding to points of view.

5.2 The Role of Speaking and Listening in English and in other Subjects

Speaking and Listening is commonly used as a medium for teaching English and other subjects. Therefore there is a distinction to be made when coding classroom observation data between:

(a) English used in teaching and learning activities; that is, using English as the medium of all teaching and learning, and

(b) Teaching and learning activities specific to learning English; that is English as a subject as defined by the content of the Order. (See section 2.0.)

5.2.1 School Documents

In the Key Stage 1 and 2 schools visited, the most informative document was the English Policy. The Schemes of Work and teachers' plans were found to be underdeveloped in terms of translating the Order into practice. In Key Stage 3 schools, Speaking and Listening was mentioned in the Policy documents, in the Schemes of Work and teachers' plans, though the depth and amount of detail varied within these documents.

The most coherent documents had clearly expressed aims for Speaking and Listening; outlining the role and process of talk, discussing the development of a pupil's Speaking and Listening and giving guidance on ways in which to implement Speaking and Listening in the classroom. The less systematic documents simply repeated the gist of AT 1 without elaboration or further guidance on implementation.

At Key Stages 1 and 2, all but one of the English Policy documents treated Speaking and Listening as both a requirement of the Order and as a cross-curricular issue. At Key Stage 3, departmental policies mentioned the role of talk in the English curriculum.

5.2.2 Policy into Practice

5.2.2(i) Contexts for Speaking and Listening

Teachers across the three Key Stages perceived there to be a change in the way they now taught Speaking and Listening. This change was in the form of an increased awareness of its importance resulting in teachers creating more opportunities for talk.

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When asked about the main way they taught Speaking and Listening, 99% of Key Stage 1 and 96% of Key Stage 2 teachers taught it as a cross-curricular, rather than English-specific skill.

At Key Stage 3, 39% of teachers taught Speaking and Listening in separate English lessons, whereas 58% taught it in separate English lessons and in drama and role play sessions. Although 48% of schools had a separate drama department, only 39% of these' shared a common Speaking and Listening policy with the English department.

5.2.2(ii) The Balance of Attainment Targets

An analysis of classroom observation data shows the amount of time given to a single AT when it was the sole focus of an activity. This analysis is shown in Graph 1 below.

Graph 1 Distribution of time spent across Attainment Targets at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

At Key Stages 1 and 2 marginally more time was spent on Reading and Writing as sole activities and at Key Stage 3 more time was spent on Speaking and Listening as a sole activity. It can be seen, therefore, that the balance was not significantly skewed away from AT 1 at any Key Stage.

Graph 2 below shows the time given to English activities within which Speaking and Listening occurred where it was integrates with either Reading or Writing.

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Graph 2 Proportion of time given to English activities within which Speaking and Listening occurred at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

The majority of Speaking and Listening occurred in Reading at Key Stage l, whereas at Key Stage 3 this shifts to Writing. This shift is noticeable as pupils gain in proficiency and can discuss the content of their written work. In all Key Stages, a large proportion of Speaking and Listening occurred when the focus of the activity was one or more of the other Attainment Targets.

In the teacher interviews, 84% of Key Stage 1 teachers, 81% of Key Stage 2 teachers and 74% of Key Stage 3 teachers, welcomed the existence of an Attainment Target for Speaking and Listening. They claimed to balance their teaching across the Attainment Targets. Teachers who supported Attainment Target 1 did so for a number of reasons: e.g. Speaking and Listening enhanced learning in other language areas and that it was an essential tool across the curriculum and in daily life. More guidance on the role and status of Speaking and Listening was requested by teachers.

In summary, observations in classrooms and teacher perceptions have shown that the balance of attention was not significantly skewed away from AT 1. In all Key Stages, a large proportion of Speaking and Listening occurred when the focus of the activity was one or more of the other Attainment Targets.

5.2.2(iii) Balance of Categories of Talk

Further analysis of observations in classrooms monitored the categories of teacher and pupil talk at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. These general categories of talk are listed on page 99. The analysis of data into these categories is displayed in Graph 3. The figures for the amount of time spent on the Speaking and Listening categories were all within the 20-32% range with most time given to 'directed' discussion (32%).

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Graph 3 Proportion of time spent on categories of teacher and pupil talk at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

At Key Stage 2, the spread of time was less evenly distributed, with 'directed' and 'open' discussion a prominent feature of these classrooms. At Key Stage 3, the spread of time was less evenly distributed, with the most time being spent on pupils in a whole class context listening to their teacher (28%) and on 'directed' discussion (28%).

5.2.2(iv) The Balance of Different Types of Talk

The analysis of data collected through classroom observation is illustrated in Graph 4. These data categorise the different types of talk which have been identified from the Order and observed at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

Graph 4 Distribution of time spent on different types of talk within AT 1 Speaking and Listening at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

Asking and answering questions was the most commonly occurring type of talk observed. It accounted for 29% of talk in Key Stages 1 and 2 and 24% at Key Stage 3. Conveying and responding to information formed the second largest category of talk within classrooms. The majority of talk within classrooms at

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all three Key Stages, therefore, was concerned with explanation and clarification (Key Stage 1, 69%; Key Stage 2, 68%; Key Stage 3, 53%).

The least occurring type of talk observed was conveying and responding to points of view, although this percentage was seen to increase as the pupils get older. It accounted for 4% of all talk at Key Stage 1, 9% at Key Stage 2 and 11% at Key Stage 3.

In the interviews with teachers, respondents were asked what types of talk they planned to cater for in their classrooms. In all Key Stages the majority of responses referred to one or more type of talk identified in the Speaking and Listening framework (47% Key Stage 1; 40% Key Stage 2; 42% Key Stage 3). At Key Stages 1 and 2, teachers most commonly mentioned the following talk categories: asking and answering questions; describing real and imaginary events; and conveying information. This corresponds approximately to the distribution of the categories observed in classrooms. At Key Stage 3, the distribution across types of talk is slightly different, in that the highest scoring categories were describing real and imaginary events, conveying information and describing points of view. These perceptions did not concur with observations in classrooms, where the emphases were on asking and answering questions and on responding to information and real and imaginary events.

In the interviews, teachers were asked if (and how) they planned for Speaking and Listening. In all Key Stages, over 84% of the respondents said that they did so. The main way of doing this was to combine structured planning in policy documents and Schemes of Work with plans for dealing with Speaking and Listening as it arose in classroom practice.

Across the Key Stages, when asked about planning for Speaking and Listening teachers' main concerns were to do with actually setting up Speaking and Listening activities; by altering the groupings for example, and providing the resources. Teachers less frequently mentioned the outcome of tasks and different types of talk as planning issues. This would suggest that further guidance would be most beneficial if it balanced advice on resourcing and managing activities with support to ensure teachers know the role and purpose of each activity.

During observations in Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 classrooms there was no distinction drawn between Speaking and Listening which occurred in other subjects and that which was taught in an English lesson. The exceptions to this were those categories of talk that were not observed in other subject contexts at Key Stage 3. These categories of talk were: giving and responding to instructions; listening and responding to real and imaginary events; listening and responding to points of view. This cross-curricular observation at Key Stage 3 occurred in middle schools. The project team visited relatively few middle schools and this could account for the more limited range of talk observed in other subject contexts at Key Stage 3.

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5.2.2(v) Balance of Teacher and Pupil Talk

Observations in classrooms also focused on the various audiences pupils and teachers were addressing. The range included Speaking and Listening in or to a pair, a small group, a large group (5 or more), whole class, teacher (for pupil), and individual pupil (for teacher).

Graph 5 illustrates findings relating to the most common classroom contexts for Speaking and Listening. These were: teachers speaking to the whole class and pupils speaking and listening to their teachers. In both cases the percentage of time is shown as a proportion of all the time the teacher or pupil spent on Speaking or on Listening. For instance, at Key Stage 1, out of the total timings collected for 'Teacher Speaking', 82% of that time was spent by teachers in addressing the whole class. There was not an equivalent amount of time spent by Key Stage 1 pupils listening, because the percentage in that column relates to 43% of all the time pupils were listening to the range of audiences described above.

Graph 5 Proportion of time spent on some of the classroom contexts for Speaking and Listening at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3.

The most common category observed in all three Key Stages was that of the teacher speaking to the whole class. There was generally imbalance in the range of audiences employed by both teachers and pupils.

5.2.3 Overview of Speaking and Listening Across the Key Stages

From the analysis, it can be seen that teachers at all three Key Stages are devoting attention to Speaking and Listening. In particular, teachers value its inclusion in the Order. However, data analysed in sections 5.3.2(iv) above indicate that teachers are unclear about the different types of speaking and listening included in AT 1, suggesting that this is an area for further guidance to support them in developing this aspect of the curriculum.

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(a) Key Stage 1

The project team most frequently encountered the teacher talking to the whole class, with the observed pupils listening. The second most frequent category was pupils engaged in activities individually or in groups, where talk could be part of the process of the activity. Pupils spent the majority of their time when they were speaking, speaking to their teacher (53%). When discussion took place, it was mainly with the teacher, and most commonly 'directed' discussion. When teachers planned for talk to be part of the process of an activity as opposed to the final outcome, pupils were given the opportunity to interact in a variety of group sizes. The most common type of talk employed by teachers and pupils was the asking and answering of questions. However, a variety of other types of talk were also found classrooms - these types of talk correspond to the Speaking and Listening framework.

(b) Key Stage 2

As with Key Stage 1, the most frequently occurring context for Speaking and Listening involved the teacher speaking and the pupils listening as a whole class. However, pupils spent the majority of the time when they were speaking, discussing their work with another pupil on a one-to-one basis. Time was also spent on a 'directed' or 'open' discussion with their teacher. The most common type of talk observed involved either the teacher or the pupil asking and answering questions.

(c) Key Stage 3

Again, as with Key Stages 1 and 2, the most common context for Speaking and Listening at Key Stage 3 involved the teacher speaking and the pupils listening in a whole class activity that was monitored and evaluated by the teacher. When discussion took place with a teacher, it was most likely to be a 'directed' discussion. The most commonly occurring type of talk observed was 'asking and answering questions', although there was a wider variety of other types of talk than was observed at either Key Stages 1 or 2.

5.3 Matters Relating to the English Order and other Subject Orders

An early stage of the project's investigation involved a detailed analysis of the English Order and NSG, and secondly of the other National Curriculum subject Orders and related documents. This part of the investigation is briefly summarised below and was aimed at exploring the notion of balance for Speaking and Listening in a wider context. While 'balance' can be interpreted in one sense referring to the distribution of time spent on the English Attainment Targets, the project team extended the notion of balance in a variety of ways. Each Statement of Attainment, Programme of Study and paragraph in the Non-Statutory Guidance was examined to assess the balance of distribution of Speaking and Listening in the Statutory and Non-Statutory curriculum documents.

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The analysis gave rise to the following findings:

(i) Across subject Orders Statements of Attainment and Programmes of Study emphasise pupils being active participants in talk situations where they must both speak and listen. Very few Statements or Programmes of Study require the pupil simply to listen to the teacher without having a more active role in the discussion.

(ii) In the English Order, Speaking and Listening is required not only in AT 1, but also in ATs 2-5, particularly in AT 2 (Reading). This is mainly 'talking about books'.

(iii) Within the Statements of Attainment and Programmes of Study of the English Order, there is a balanced distribution of the categories of talk in the framework, with the exception of the lack of emphasis on pupils conveying points of view.

(iv) References to discussion figure highly in the English NSG (NCC 1989, 1990). However, the individual types of talk in the Speaking and Listening framework figure hardly at all - this is an element of imbalance in the NSGs.

(v) In the NSGs (NCC 1989, 1990), the emphasis is on organising resources for talk. There is little discussion of the role of talk in learning, although this discussion is found in other National Curriculum subject documents.

(vi) A distinction was made in the analysis between references to 'possible' and 'definite' Speaking and Listening. These references reveal an even distribution across the English Order. However, across other subject Orders the 'possible' analysis shows a high distribution of Speaking and Listening, while the 'definite' analysis reveals a very low distribution of Speaking and Listening.

(vii) In contrast to the English Order, there is a large distribution of content-related talk across the other subject Orders (i.e. the SoAs and PoS specify what should be discussed). The subject theme provides this content, whereas the English Order does not specify what types of content pupils should discuss in order to fulfil the requirements. Pupils conveying information forms the main focus of this type of talk across the curriculum.

(viii) The NSG of the other subject Orders emphasise the role of talk in learning, and the role of evaluating talk. The English NSG makes little or no reference to such talk.

(ix) The Speaking and Listening framework (outlined in section 5.1.0 above) includes all the types of talk found in the English Order. However, there are other types of talk in other subject documents

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(finding (viii) above). This indicates that although there are a variety of Speaking and Listening activities covered by all the subject Orders, the range is unevenly distributed in the English Order and across other subject documents.

5.4 Recommendations for Further Support

In terms of support that is currently available to teachers, the Non-statutory Guidance has been the most widespread across the three Key Stages. The majority of those teachers who have used it have found it helpful at Key Stages 1 and 2. Key Stage 3 teachers found the Non-Statutory Guidance less useful, since they thought that the materials offered nothing new and were not sufficiently practical.

The other type of support mentioned as being useful by teachers across the three Key Stages was that of LEA and School based INSET. When teachers had time to attend these courses they found them stimulating and of practical value. There were, however, reservations about the 'cascade' system of disseminating information. Key Stage 1 and 2 teachers, in particular, felt that time restraints prevented the necessary feedback of information from subject co-ordinators.

When asked about future support, teachers requested more resources. The most common request at Key Stages 1 and 2 was for an extra adult in the room. The extra person would not only aid the classroom management of AT 1 but also provide another audience for the pupils, thus fulfilling part of AT 1's requirements.

Teachers would welcome the opportunity to explore ideas with colleagues in other schools. In terms of written guidance, teachers wanted practical ideas for translating the documents into workable classroom practice. Many teachers mentioned the need for a national collation of ideas that were being used successfully by other teachers.

5.5 Spoken Standard English

The project team was also asked to investigate issues connected with the concept of spoken Standard English. This resulted in an examination of current theoretical research, followed by teachers' perceptions of spoken Standard English.

Towards a Definition of Spoken Standard English

There is a debate in both linguistic and educational circles as to what is meant by the term 'Spoken Standard English'. Indeed, some linguists doubt the existence of such a form of English. One way to formulate a definition of the term is to begin by stating what is not meant by Spoken Standard English. Spoken Standard English is not an accent. Spoken Standard English is in

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reality usually spoken in regional accents without any communication problems. Spoken Standard English is not inherently superior to other dialects of English.

Spoken Standard English is a dialect with particular grammatical forms. It is socially prestigious and is expected and appropriate in formal public contexts (e.g. presentation, formal job interview). Spoken Standard English excludes by definition certain non-standard grammatical forms (such as 'I'll wait here while ten o'clock') and vocabulary items (such as 'geezer', 'canny'). Although the dialect is usually associated with formal contexts, it can also be used informally.

Trudgill (1988: 17-18) emphasises that Standard English is the dialect that represents the language used in education, in the professions, and in other domains of power and influence.

Written Standard English is that form of English which is used in most formal written or scripted contexts (e.g. newspapers and news broadcasts). Spoken Standard English incorporates this but also includes features that are inherent in unscripted spoken language. These features include:

• the ability to correct speech mid-utterance, (Analysis of unscripted speech is often characterised by changes of topic, grammatical corrections, change of vocabulary choices.)
• miscues,
• language that is much more context-specific, because of the shared environment for the interaction, than written language. It is often characterised by proximal deictics, that is, words which locate the speaker's view point in space (e.g. these, those); time (e.g. now, then) or interpersonal relations (e.g. we, you),
• paralinguistic features (non-verbal communication such as gesturing),
• appropriate intonation to indicate mood (e.g. raised for questions),
• unfinished sentences,
• use of pauses.

Teachers who responded to the National Survey and interviews were asked what they understood by the term 'Spoken Standard English'. The majority of respondents (Key Stage 1 - 53%; Key Stage 2 - 45%; Key Stage 3 - 59%) identified the following definition:

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The vocabulary and grammar of English which is usually used in print and in formal spoken contexts.

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6.0 KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LANGUAGE (KAL)

The project team was asked to investigate particular issues related to Knowledge about Language:

• Which parts of Knowledge about Language and Programmes of Study would enhance the learning of language and grammar at Levels 1 - 4, and what additional Statements' of Attainment should be formulated for these Levels to provide a better structure for language teaching?
• Do the Programmes of Study and relevant Statements of Attainment for Key Stages 2 and 3 provide a practical framework and sequence for effective teaching of the Knowledge about Language strand?
• How do teachers manage the relationship between the Knowledge about Language strand of the five Attainment Targets and the Programmes of Study for Key Stages 2 and 3 for individuals and classes?
• Which Statements on Knowledge about Language need reorganisation or re-formulation and what should these be?

6.1. Content and Manageability of Knowledge about Language

6.1.1 Matters Relating to the Order

In the Programmes of Study, the term 'Knowledge about Language' relates to a strand of Statements of Attainment from Levels 5 to 10 (Key Stages 2 to 4) based on the Kingman Model of English Language (DES 1988) and the recommendations made in English for Ages 5-16 (DES/WO 1989). However, a preliminary analysis of the Order revealed Knowledge about Language in Statements of Attainment and Programmes of Study below Level 5, as well as in the recognised strand. This analysis showed there was no definition or concise explanation of the term Knowledge about Language within the Order, Non-Statutory Guidance or other published material (Carter 1991). A working definition, therefore, for the term Knowledge about Language has been derived from the Order:

Knowledge about Language is explicit and systematic knowledge and understanding about the organisation and use of English.

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Analysis of the Order distinguished between those Programmes of Study and Statements of Attainment which require pupils to learn about language, from those which require them to use language. Knowledge about Language in this section addresses those elements of the Order which are concerned with explicit teaching and learning about language. The framework for Knowledge about Language for each Attainment Target derived from this analysis is shown below.

AT 1 Speaking and Listening

• Social and regional variations of English accents and dialects (including Standard English) and attitudes towards such variations.
• Spoken language use according to audience, context and purpose.
• Paralinguistic features of language.

• The process of reading.
• Differences between texts according to audience, context and purpose.
• Language change and attitudes towards change.
• Reading in different ways for different purposes.
• The structural organisation of written language, discerning and evaluating how it conveys meaning.

• The process of writing.
• Spelling and spelling patterns.
• Organisational and grammatical differences between speech and writing.
• Drafting and editing processes.
• The range of forms and purposes that written language serves.
• The history of writing.

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complete sentences, some of them demarcated with capital letters and full stops or question marks'.

Moreover, elements of Key Stage 1 Programmes of Study also enhance the learning of language and grammar. For example, Programme of Study 17 for (AT 3) Writing states that:

As children become more fluent and confident as writers, there should be increased attention to the punctuation which demarcates sentences (capital letters, full stops, question marks and exclamation marks) and to the conventions of spelling. These should be taught in the context of the children's own writing and should always be related to their junction of making the writer's meaning clear to the reader.

Key Stage 1 teachers have contributed to reports illustrating classroom practice concerned with teaching Knowledge about Language both in LEA - produced material and books published as part of the LINC project. The project team surveyed these sources. This survey found that many teachers at Key Stage 1 have been teaching those areas of Knowledge about Language within the above framework. These reports were concerned with Speaking and Listening (14 reports); with Reading (15) and with Writing (19) integrated into language work which had authentic communicative purpose. The reports also showed that pupils' Knowledge about Language develops recursively through exposure to models provided by other writers, combined with the opportunity to experiment with the use of similar techniques for themselves. Reading and writing provided a context for pupils to learn about rules and patterns of language, in particular those of grammar and punctuation, and apply them for their own purposes. Visits to Key Stage 1 schools and classrooms confirmed that most teachers taught pupils Knowledge about Language, particularly written language, in a similar way (section 6.2 below).

6.1.2 Teacher Knowledge and Understanding

Teachers interviewed in schools and those responding to the National Survey were asked to give their interpretation of the term Knowledge about Language. Teachers' responses generated three broad though distinct categories:

(i) The organisation and use of language related to words and sentences, including spelling, punctuation and grammar. These aspects of Knowledge about Language were found to decrease from Key Stage 1 to 3.

(ii) The organisation and use of language within texts of more than one sentence (such as paragraphs). This aspect was seen to remain constant across Key Stages.

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(iii) Theoretical aspects of language such as differences between accents and dialects, including Standard English, language change and differences between speech and writing. Those more theoretical aspects of Knowledge about Language increased from Key Stage 1 to 3.

Teachers at Key Stage 3 were more likely to include the third category than their colleagues at Key Stages 1 and 2. This may be because areas outlined by this third category referenced Knowledge about Language Statements of Attainment for three of the Levels of Key Stage 3 (5 to 8) and one Level (5), of Key Stage 2.

These three categories generated by teachers' responses, can be linked to the framework for Knowledge about Language and these relationships are illustrated in Table 26.

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Table 26 A Framework for Knowledge about Language

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Teachers' understanding of Knowledge about Language (KAL) was found not to distinguish between different language modes. It related to written language more often than it did to spoken language. Although teachers' collective understanding of the term 'Knowledge about Language' corresponded to the framework, there was a degree of uncertainty amongst individual teachers about the exact terms of reference and the precise area of English teaching to which it referred, particularly in Key Stages 1 and 2. This uncertainty lay in whether the term 'Knowledge about Language' included teaching about the organisation and use of language structured within texts and theoretical aspects of language, as well as teaching about the organisation and use of language related to words and sentences. These teachers found the Order unhelpful in this respect. English teachers at Key Stage 3 stated that it was the term 'Knowledge about Language' itself which was unfamiliar to them, rather than the area of English to which it referred, although many expressed a lack of confidence about teaching theoretical aspects of language, saying they lacked the necessary expertise.

6.1.3 Teaching Grammar and Knowledge about Language

Teachers who took part in the National Survey were asked to give details of grammar they taught across Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. Tables 27 - 32 summarise these details.

Table 27 % of Teachers' Perceptions of their Teaching of Grammar at Key Stage 1

Table 27 illustrates what Key Stage 1 teachers claimed they taught as part of their curriculum coverage of grammar and punctuation. There was a consensus about the teaching of sentence grammar and punctuation. More detailed information concerning these aspects of their actual English teaching are shown in Tables 28 and 29 below.

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Table 28 % of Frequency of observed Teaching about Punctuation at Key Stage 1

Table 28 indicates that those aspects of punctuation which teachers at Key Stage 1 taught most frequently were the use of full stops and capital letters.

Table 30 % of Frequency of observed Teaching about Grammar at Key Stage 1

Table 29 indicates that teachers at Key Stage 1 taught general sentence construction, including the use of tense, more frequently than any particular word class within a sentence. Section 6.2 below describes in more detail approaches to teaching Knowledge about Language, including grammar and punctuation in schools visited at Key Stage 1. The responses of teachers at Key Stages 2 and 3 are shown in Tables 30 - 32.

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Table 30 % of Teachers' Perceptions of Teaching of Grammar at Key Stages 2 and 3

Table 30 shows what teachers stated they taught as part of teaching grammar between Y3 and Y9. At Key Stage 2, teachers focused mainly on punctuation and sentence structure, with increasing attention to paragraphing, while aspects of language associated with (AT 1) Speaking and Listening were more frequently dealt with by Key Stage 3 teachers.

Table 31 gives further details of the aspects of punctuation which teachers taught to different year groups.

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Table 31 % of Frequency of Observed Teaching about Punctuation at Key Stages 2 and 3

Teachers of both Key Stages 2 and 3 stated that they taught punctuation, but did not specifically name which aspects they taught. Teaching punctuation was observed to increase throughout Key Stage 2 and decreased thereafter.

Teachers at Key Stage 2 who described which aspects of punctuation they taught, most frequently mentioned punctuation used to demarcate the beginnings and ends of sentences (such as capital letters, full stops, question marks and exclamation marks), as well as the use of the comma within sentences. Observations in Key Stage 2 classrooms indicated that teaching about capital letters, full stops and question marks decreased, whereas teaching about exclamation marks, commas and speech marks increased during the Key Stage. Teachers at Key Stage 3 stated that they revised the use of punctuation as well as introducing the uses of colons, semi-colons, brackets and hyphens. Teaching the uses of the apostrophe was found to increase across the year groups.

Table 32 gives details of specific aspects of grammar taught at Key Stages 2 and 3.

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Table 32 % of Frequency of observed Teaching about Grammar at Key Stages 2 and 3

Key Stage 2 and 3 teachers who stated which aspects of grammar within sentences they taught, mentioned teaching about verbs and use of tense, nouns and adjectives most frequently. Teaching about these word classes was observed most frequently for Y3 and Y 4 and less frequently thereafter. Teaching about conjunctions and prepositions increased throughout the two Key Stages. Introducing pupils to clauses and positional functions of words such as subject and object was introduced at Key Stage 3, as were 'parts of speech' collectively and individual word classes.

Teachers stated that they were most likely to teach grammar by integrating it into the context of pupils' learning tasks (55% Key Stage 1, 55% Key Stage 2, 50% Key Stage 3). Teaching grammar as a separate lesson was most likely to occur at Key Stage 2 (29%) The comparable figures for other Key Stages were 6% (KS1) and 13% (KS3).

Teachers of all three Key Stages in the schools visited and those who responded to the National Survey stated that they managed the teaching of Knowledge about Language in one of three main ways:

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Structured planning of Knowledge about Language as the main focus for a lesson or series of lessons:

Teaching Knowledge about Language in response to meeting the needs of individual pupils within planned activities.